517
Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology 8.
517-538 Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology Journal homepage: http://ejournal.
edu/index.
php/ijost/ Characteristics of Tamarind Seed Biochar at Different Pyrolysis Temperatures as Waste Management Strategy:
Experiments and Bibliometric Analysis Ali Rahmat1.
Sutiharni Sutiharni2.
Yetti Elfina3.
Yusnaini Yusnaini4.
Hadidjah Latuponu5.
Faidliyah Nilna Minah6.
Yeny Sulistyowati7.
Abdul Mutolib8,* Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional.
Indonesia Universitas Papua.
Indonesia Universitas Riau.
Indonesia Universitas Khairun.
Indonesia Universitas Darussalam Ambon.
Indonesia Institut Teknologi Nasional Malang.
Indonesia Universitas Respati Indonesia.
Indonesia Universitas Siliwangi.
Indonesia Correspondence: E-mail: abdul.
mutolib@unsil.
ABSTRACT
Household activities and beverage industries that use tamarind often generate waste in the form of tamarind Tamarind seeds account for approximately 40% of the total weight of the fruit.
If these tamarind seeds are not properly managed, they end up as waste with no economic or other benefits.
One effective waste management strategy is to convert tamarind seeds into biochar.
This research aims to examine the characteristics of biochar produced from tamarind seeds at different pyrolysis temperatures.
The results indicate that as the pyrolysis temperature increases, the fixed carbon content also increases.
Pores begin to form on the surface of the biochar at a temperature of 400AC.
have identified functional groups such as C-H.
O-H.
CON.
COC.
C=C.
C=O.
CH3.
C-O, and C-C in the biochar.
The dominant elements in tamarind seed biochar are K2O.
CaO.
P2O5.
SO3, and MgO, which are part of macronutrients and alkaline elements with the potential to improve soil quality as soil
A 2023 Tim Pengembang Jurnal UPI
ARTICLE INFO
Article History:
Submitted/Received 23 Jul 2023
First Revised 15 Sep 2023
Accepted 18 Oct 2023
First Available online 23 Oct 2023
Publication Date 01 Dec 2023
____________________
Keyword:
Agricultural waste.
Biochar.
Tamarind seed.
Psychochemical properties.
Waste management.
Rahmat et al.
Characteristics of Tamarind Seed Biochar at Different Pyrolysis A | 518
INTRODUCTION
Tamarind, also known as Tamarindus indica, is one of Indonesia's most popular Various parts of the tamarind plant can be used for both food and medicine.
Tamarind pulp is not only consumed raw or turned into sweets but is also employed as a raw ingredient in herbal medicine (Putri.
Indonesia holds the potential to produce Javanese tamarind fruit, particularly in the districts of Madura.
Mojokerto.
West and East Nusa Tenggara, and Central Java (Ariani & Pandanwangi, 2.
Tamarind fruit offers numerous health benefits for humans, including volatile chemical compounds, vitamins, and fiber.
Meanwhile, tamarind pods have a history of use in traditional medicine for treating laxative, digestive, and bile problems.
Tamarind seeds are commonly categorized as agricultural waste due to a lack of awareness regarding their potential benefits (Gayathri et al.
, 2.
Household activities and beverage industries that use tamarind will produce waste in the form of tamarind seeds.
The seed portion of tamarind accounts for approximately 40% of the total weight.
tamarind seeds are not managed properly, they will become waste with no economic or other benefits (Bagul et al.
, 2.
Therefore, technology is needed to convert this seed waste into materials that have economic value or other useful purposes.
One such application is the conversion of tamarind seeds into biochar.
Biochar is a high-energy solid fuel created through the thermal decomposition of biomass, using processes such as pyrolysis and gasification (Nayaggy & Putra, 2019.
Pebrianti & Salamah, 2021.
Jamilatun et al.
Many research on biochar have been reported (Nandiyanto et al.
, 2023.
, such as:
Rice straw (Nandiyanto et al.
, 2017.
Nandiyanto et al.
, 2018.
Fiandini et al.
Mangosteen Peel (Nandiyanto et al.
Tamarind (Tamarindusindica L) Seed (Nandiyanto et al.
, 2023.
Cassava Peel (Yolanda et al.
, 2.
Lumbricus Rubellus (Nandiyanto, 2.
Red dragon fruit (Nandiyanto et al.
Pineapple peel waste (Nandiyanto et , 2020.
Rice husk (Anggraeni et al.
, 2.
Due to its lower cost and reduced environmental impact, it can find application in various areas including solid fuel production, soil remediation, greenhouse gas reduction, and waste management (Cha et , 2.
Biochar is a carbon-based substance produced as a byproduct of pyrolysis, a process that involves heating biomass in a limited or oxygen-free Its chemical and physical properties vary widely due to the different biomass residues used and the specific conditions of pyrolysis.
Biochar exhibits significant potential for mitigating carbon emissions through long-term carbon sequestration, while also offering various horticultural benefits (Dunnigan et al.
, 2.
Biochar can supply nitrogen (N), increase organic carbon (C), and raise pH levels due to its alkaline nature and high carbon content (Chan et al.
, 2.
Characterization results for biochar indicate its suitability for various purposes, including use as solid fuel, fertilizer, and bio-adsorbents (Nandiyanto, 2020.
Fiandini et al.
, 2020.
Nandiyanto et al.
Nandiyanto et al.
, 2020b.
Nandiyanto et al.
, 2020c.
Nandiyanto et al.
, 2020d.
Mishra et al.
, 2020.
Nandiyanto et al, 2021.
N'diaye et al.
, 2022.
Nandiyanto.
, 2.
Tamarind seed powder serves as an adsorbent for removing crystal violet dye at different pH levels, offering a treatment option for polluted wastewater (Mopoung et , 2015.
Patel and Vasthi, 2.
Tamarind seed biochar/carbon may present an economically viable alternative as an absorbent (Ishak, 2.
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 519 | Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology.
Volume 8 Issue 3.
December 2023 Hal 517-538 The type of raw material used and the manufacturing process have a significant impact on the quality of biochar.
One of the determining factors is the pyrolysis Pyrolysis technologies provide an excellent means to utilize lignocellulosic biomass (Subagyono, 2.
However, because pyrolysis can greatly affect both heat transmission and reaction speeds, the optimal operating conditions can vary considerably (Lopez-Velazquez et al.
, 2013.
Sait et al.
, 2.
Thermal pyrolysis produces varying ash content at temperatures ranging from 450AC to 600AC (Mishra et al.
, 2.
Results from pyrolysis experiments have revealed an optimum carbonization temperature of 500AC (Akpen et al.
, 2.
Temperatures between 370AC and 420AC are considered ideal for pyrolysis (Traory et al.
As pyrolysis temperature increases, biochar output decreases while BET surface area, and total pore volume increase (Mutolib et al.
, 2.
Furthermore, increasing the pyrolysis temperature leads to higher percentages of carbon (%C) and ash (%as.
concentrations, while decreasing the percentages of hydrogen (%H), oxygen (%O), and nitrogen (%N) contents in most samples, with the most significant changes occurring in the temperature range of 500AC to 700AC (Chatterjee et al.
, 2.
According to Al Wabel et al.
, biochars generated at low temperatures exhibit lower pH and EC values and higher quantities of unstable organic carbon and dissolved organic carbon compared to those produced at high Given the uncertainty surrounding the influence of pyrolysis temperature on biochar characteristics, further research is needed to explore the impact of pyrolysis temperature on specific materials, such as tamarind seeds.
Consequently, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of different pyrolysis temperatures on the properties of biochar derived from tamarind
METHODS
Bibliometric Analysis In this analysis, two software applications were used: namely, "Publish or Perish 8" and "VOSviewer.
" The database utilized for data collection was Google Scholar.
The data collection process employed the "Publish or Perish" method, using the keywords "Biochar" and "Pyrolysis," resulting in a total of 1000 articles.
Subsequently, the collected data was saved in RIS format.
The next step involved running VOSviewer, where "Create" was selected, followed by choosing "Create map based on text data.
" Then, the option to "Read data from reference manager file" was selected, and the RIS file was uploaded.
The specific field from which terms would be extracted was set as the "Title field.
Afterward, "Full calculation" was chosen, and a minimum of 10 occurrences was set as the Finally, the process was completed by clicking "Finish.
Material Preparation The samples consist of tamarind seeds collected from the local market.
These tamarind seeds are first washed with water to remove any dust or other unwanted After washing, the samples are air-dried for 48 hours.
Once dried, the samples are ready for pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis Process Tamarin seeds were subjected to pyrolysis using a muffle furnace.
Clean, air-dried tamarin seeds were placed inside a porcelain cup with a volume of 50 mL, which was then tightly sealed and wrapped with aluminum The purpose of coating with aluminum foil was to minimize the interaction of the sample with oxygen during the pyrolysis The sample was kept in the furnace for 4 hours, with temperature variations of 300AC, 400AC, 500AC, and 600AC.
Following pyrolysis, the sample was allowed to cool to room temperature.
Once it reached room temperature, the sample was ground and DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 Rahmat et al.
Characteristics of Tamarind Seed Biochar at Different Pyrolysis A | 520 sieved using a 355 m sieve (Rahmat, 2021.
Rahmat et al.
, 2022a.
Rahmat et al.
, 2022b.
Rahmat, 2022.
The results of the sieve analysis will be used for the characterization of the biochar.
Parameter Analysis Proximate biochar content was measured using a TGA 701 Thermogravimetric Analyzer using the ASTM D5142 method (American Standard Testing Material.
PerkinElmer's Simultaneous Thermal Analyzer (STA) 6000 was utilized for conducting thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).
The biochar samples were analyzed over a temperature range of 40 to 1000 AC, employing a continuous heating rate of 10 AC/min.
To sustain an inert atmosphere throughout the pyrolysis process, pure nitrogen (N.
gas was consistently introduced into the heating chamber.
The TGA curves were devised to evaluate a material's thermal stability by quantifying the weight alteration correlated with temperature variations.
The surface morphology of biochar was examined using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) with the Thermo Scientific Quattro S FESEM.
The functional groups of the biochar samples were analyzed using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) with the PerkinElmer Spectrum Two equipped with a Universal Attenuated Total Reflectance (UATR) accessory.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy was used to characterize the element contents .
of biochar The wavelength dispersion was determined using the Omnian ED- XRF PANalytical Epsilon 3 XLE X-ray fluorescence RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bibliometrics Results Bibliometrics can be used to identify a data set to understand the connection of one data to another.
Many research in bibliometric analysis have reported, presented in Table 1.
Figure 1 shows the VOSviewer visualization data.
From this, there are 4 clusters based on the proximity of the data.
Based on Table 2, it is evident that the four clusters are fundamentally interconnected and maintain a relationship.
Some of them even share similar meanings.
Research on biochar and pyrolysis is still in the process of exploring various aspects, including the utilization of raw materials .
eedstock typ.
, pyrolysis techniques, biochar development, and biochar applications.
One of the areas of ongoing research involves investigating biochar's potential use as an adsorbent and as a soil amendment.
Table 1.
Previous studies on bibliometric analysis.
Title Dental suction aerosol: Bibliometric analysis.
A bibliometric analysis of Covid-19 researches using VOSViewer.
The latest report on the advantages and disadvantages of pure biodiesel (B.
on engine performance: Literature review and bibliometric A bibliometric analysis of management bioenergy research using VOSviewer application Oil palm empty fruit bunch waste pretreatment with benzotriazoliumbased ionic liquids for cellulose conversion to glucose: Experiments with computational bibliometric analysis Biomass-based supercapacitors electrodes for electrical energy storage systems activated using chemical activation method: A literature review and bibliometric analysis.
Bibliometric analysis of nano metal-organic frameworks synthesis research in medical science using VOSViewer Ref.
Ramadahn et al.
Hamidah et al.
Setiyo et al.
Soegoto et al.
Mudzakir et al.
Hamidah et al.
Shidiq .
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 521 | Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology.
Volume 8 Issue 3.
December 2023 Hal 517-538 Table 1 (Continu.
Previous studies on bibliometric analysis.
Title Past, current and future trends of salicylic acid and its derivatives: A bibliometric review of papers from the Scopus database published from 2000 to 2021.
Correlation between process engineering and special needs from bibliometric analysis perspectives.
10 Bibliometric analysis for understanding the correlation between chemistry and special needs education using VOSviewer indexed by Google.
11 Computing bibliometric analysis with mapping visualization using VOSviewer on AupharmacyAy and Auspecial needsAy research data in 20172021.
12 Nutritional research mapping for endurance sports: A bibliometric 13 Bibliometric and visualized analysis of scientific publications on geotechnics fields.
14 A bibliometric analysis of computational mapping on publishing teaching science engineering using VOSviewer application and correlation.
15 What is the correlation between chemical engineering and special needs education from the perspective of bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer indexed by Google Scholar? 16 Counselling guidance in science education: Definition, literature review, and bibliometric analysis.
17 Phytochemical profile and biological activities of ethylacetate extract of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.
) stems: In-vitro and in-silico studies with bibliometric analysis.
18 A bibliometric analysis of materials research in Indonesian journal using VOSViewer 19 Research trend on the use of mercury in gold mining: Literature review and bibliometric analysis 20 Bibliometric analysis of educational research in 2017 to 2021 using VOSViewer: Google Scholar indexed research.
21 Bibliometric analysis of special needs education keyword using VOSviewer indexed by Google Scholar 22 Sustainable development goals (SDG.
in science education: Definition, literature review, and bibliometric analysis.
23 Computational bibliometric analysis of research on science and Islam with VOSViewer: Scopus database in 2012 to 2022.
24 Resin matrix composition on the performance of brake pads made from durian seeds: From computational bibliometric literature analysis to 25 Bibliometric Analysis of Briquette Research Trends During the Covid-19 Pandemic.
26 Computational Bibliometric Analysis on Publication of Techno-Economic Education.
27 How bibliographic dataset portrays decreasing number of scientific publications from Indonesia 28 Research trends from the Scopus database using keyword water hyacinth and ecosystem: A bibliometric literature review 29 Bibliometric analysis of high school keyword using VOSviewer indexed by google scholar 30 How to calculate bibliometric using VOSviewer with Publish or Perish .
sing Scopus dat.
: Science education keywords Ref.
Ruzmetov .
Nordin .
Bilad .
Sudarjat .
Firdaus et al.
Mulyawati et al.
Nordin .
Wirzal et al.
Solehuddin et al.
Sahidin et al.
Nandiyanto and Al Husaeni .
Nandiyanto et al.
Al Husaeni et al.
Al Husaeni et al.
Maryanti et al.
Al Husaeni and Al Husaeni .
Nandiyanto et al.
Al Husaeni .
Ragadhita and Nandiyanto .
Nandiyanto et al.
Nandiyanto et al.
Al Husaeni and Nandiyanto .
Al Husaeni and Al Husaeni .
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 Rahmat et al.
Characteristics of Tamarind Seed Biochar at Different Pyrolysis A | 522 Table 1 (Continu.
Previous studies on bibliometric analysis.
Title 31 Bibliometric analysis for understanding Auscience educationAy for Austudent with special needsAy using VOSViewer 32 Bibliometric analysis of research development in sports science with VOSViewer.
33 Bibliometric analysis of engineering research using VOSviewer indexed by Google Scholar 34 Bibliometric computational mapping analysis of publications on mechanical engineering education using VOSViewer 35 Introducing ASEAN Journal of Science and Engineering: A Bibliometric Analysis Study 36 Introducing ASEAN Journal of Science and Engineering Education: A Bibliometric Analysis Study for Understanding Internationalization 37 Exploring Iron Oxide's Role in Hydrogen Production: Bibliographic and Bibliometric Analysis 37 How Technology Can Change Educational Research? Definition.
Factors for Improving Quality of Education and Computational Bibliometric Analysis 38 Is Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Ready for Internationalization? A Bibliometric Analysis in The Science and Technology-Related Publications 39 Social Impact and Internationalization of AuIndonesian Journal of Science and TechnologyAy the Best Journal in Indonesia: A Bibliometric Analysis 40 Mapping of nanotechnology research in animal science: Scientometric 41 A bibliometric analysis of the use of particle technology in computational fluid dynamics 42 A bibliometric analysis of language teaching to enhance science students' knowledge during laboratory practicum 43 Definition, comprehension-boosting factors for students, and computational bibliometric analysis of language 44 Bibliometric analysis of learning Science by regulating strategy in language education Ref.
Nursaniah and Nandiyanto .
Al Husaeni .
Nandiyanto and Al Husaeni .
Al Husaeni and Nandiyanto .
Nandiyanto et al.
Al Husaeni et al.
Nandiyanto et al.
Al Husaeni et al.
Nandiyanto et al.
Nandiyanto et al.
Kumar.
10 Nandiyanto et al.
Fauziah et al.
Al Husaeni et al.
Suherman et al.
Figure 1.
Vosviewer results based on the title with keywords of AuBiochar.
PyrolysisAy.
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 523 | Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology.
Volume 8 Issue 3.
December 2023 Hal 517-538 Table 2.
The cluster from vosviewer analysis.
Cluster 1 Adsorption Aqueous solution Biochar catalyst Biomass pyrolysis Catalytic pyrolysis Characteristics Evaluation Magnetic biochar Mechanism Microwave Microwave pyrolysis Optimalization Removal Rice husk Sludge Water Yield Cluster 2 Application Bio oil Biochar production Biomass Characterization Comparison Fast pyrolysis Modification Preparation Production Pyrolysis Review Slow pyrolysis Based on Figure 2, we assessed the relationship between soil amendment and other keywords.
Biochar and pyrolysis exhibit a strong correlation with soil amendment.
Similarly, significantly linked to soil amendment.
the other hand, the figure also indicates that Cluster 3 Biochar Feedstock Feedstock type Physicochemical Property Pyrolysis condition Pyrolysis temperature Soil Temperature Cluster 4 Biochar property Characteristic Co pyrolysis Environmental risk Heavy metal Rice straw Sewage sludge Soil amendment research involving biomass, such as sludge and rice straw, has been widely investigated as a material for soil amendment.
This research is expected to have an impact on soil quality and the management of heavy Figure 2.
Vosviewer map of soil amendment.
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 Rahmat et al.
Characteristics of Tamarind Seed Biochar at Different Pyrolysis A | 524 Proximate Analysis Proximate analysis provides essential information for characterizing biochar, including parameters such as moisture, volatile matter (VM), fixed carbon (FC), and ash concentration.
The ash concentration of biochar is associated with its liming value and inorganic element content, while VM and FC have been used to assess the labile and recalcitrant biochar fractions (Archontoulis et al.
, 2.
Various factors influence the physical and chemical properties of biochar.
Brewer comprehensive biochar characterization experiments and discovered that the chemical and physical properties of biochar vary depending on the biomass feedstock and production techniques.
In this experiment, the tamarind seed biochar (TSB) was produced with different temperatures of Based on Table 3, moisture content and fixed carbon of tamarind seed biochar temperature, whereas volatile matter The lowest moisture content is found in TSB-300, at 1.
6%, while the highest is in TSB-600, with a value of 9.
Similarly, fixed carbon exhibits a similar trend, with TSB-300 having a fixed carbon content of 60% and TSB-600 measuring 67.
contrast, volatile matter content in TSB-300 72%, but it decreases to 18.
88% in TSB600.
Regarding ash content, it increases with pyrolysis temperature in TSB-300.
TSB-400, and TSB-500, but it decreases again in TSB600.
According to Sun et al.
, .
, the volatile matter concentration of biochar formed at 300AC ranges from 34% to 54%, whereas the volatile matter content ranges from 6% to 19% at 600AC.
According to Sun et al.
increasing the pyrolysis temperature from 300AC to 600AC increased the fixed carbon content of biochar from 47.
3% to 73.
Tomczyk et al.
discovered that as the pyrolysis temperature increased from 350AC to 700AC, the fixed carbon content of biochar increased from 20% to 80%.
The volatile matter content of biochar reduces as the pyrolysis temperature rises.
This is because volatile matter is removed during the pyrolysis process, leaving only the fixed carbon in the biochar.
As the pyrolysis temperature increases, the intramolecular and intermolecular chemical bonds in the feedstocks break down, resulting in a steady decrease in moisture and volatile matter content (Sun et al.
, 2.
According to the search findings, the fixed carbon content of biochar increases as the pyrolysis temperature rises.
Fixed carbon is the carbon in biochar that remains after volatile matter is removed during the pyrolysis process (Crombie et al.
, 2.
The fixed carbon content in biochar is a key aspect in determining its quality as a soil amendment (Lataf et al.
, 2.
As the pyrolysis temperature rises and the carbonization process progresses, the organic matter in the feedstocks is broken down into simpler inorganic compounds.
This increases the ash content of the biochar and retains more of the feedstock's mineral content as ash (Al Wabel et al.
, 2013.
Quratul-Ain et al.
, 2.
Table 3.
Proximate data of tamarind seed biochar.
Sample TSB-300
TSB-400
TSB-500
TSB-600
Moisture content
(%)
Volatile matter
(%)
Fixed Carbon
(%)
Ash content (%) DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 525 | Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology.
Volume 8 Issue 3.
December 2023 Hal 517-538 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) TGA is a type of thermal analysis that analyses weight changes in a material as a function of temperature or time in a controlled environment (Ragadhita & Nandiyanto.
The thermogravimetric analysis is to determine a material's thermal stability and volatile component fraction by monitoring the weight change that occurs while a sample is heated at a constant rate.
The stability of biochar is important to be predicted due to the degradation/ decomposition in the natural conditions.
Figure 3 depicts a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of biochar generated at various temperatures.
Moisture loss is associated with weight loss up to 200AC (Santos et al.
, 2.
Up to 200AC, around 710% weight loss occurs following the moisture content at the proximate data.
Temperatures exceeding 300AC to 500AC cause significant weight loss.
The evaluated biochar samples were found to be thermally stable below the temperature at which they were formed.
After heating to 900AC, the TGA curve reveals a drop in total weight of 36%, 35.
1%, 25.
74%, and 22.
37% for TSB300.
TSB-400.
TSB-500, and BC600, respectively, indicating that biochar generated at high pyrolysis temperatures is more stable than that formed at lower Kim et al.
obtained similar results after pyrolyzing pitch pine woodchips and Qurat-ul-Ain et al.
, .
for Parthenium hysterophorus weed.
Sun et al.
also demonstrated that biochar formed at lower temperatures was thermally less stable than biochar formed at higher temperatures due to partial carbonization.
Similar findings were discovered in this investigation.
Figure 3.
Thermogravimetric analysis of biochar from tamarind seed prepared at different DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 Rahmat et al.
Characteristics of Tamarind Seed Biochar at Different Pyrolysis A | 526 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) SEM is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a concentrated stream of Electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing a variety of signals that carry information about the sample's surface topography and composition (Yolanda & Nandiyanto, 2.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to examine the morphology and microstructure of materials.
SEM images at 300AC show different visual characteristics compared to treatments at other temperatures.
As depicted in Figure 4, the tamarin seeds' biochar has not exhibited significant changes.
the shape of the tamarin seeds biochar remains consistent, albeit with a shift in color to black.
The black hue on the tamarin seeds' surface indicates the presence of organic carbon content, initiating the combustion process.
At a temperature of 300AC (Figure 4.
, carbonization is limited to the surface and has not yet permeated the inner structure of the seeds.
The pyrolysis temperatures of 400AC and 500AC exhibit a nearly identical trend in morphological changes within the tamarin seeds, as illustrated in Figures 4b and 4c.
Figure 4b, at a pyrolysis temperature of 400AC, pores begin to emerge in the tamarin seeds biochar.
However, these pores are not yet well-defined due to incomplete combustion in some parts of the biochar.
contrast, biochar exposed to 500AC clearly shows distinct pores, indicating complete combustion at this temperature.
Referring to Figure 4d, the surface morphology of biochar TSB-600 displays the initiation of pore cracking.
Fu et al.
contend that pyrolysis at even higher temperatures, specifically 600AC, leads to the formation of a pore network that subsequently collapses and seals the pores.
Tamarin seeds biochar 300AC Tamarin seeds biochar 400AC Tamarin seeds biochar 500AC Tamarin seeds biochar 600AC Figure 4.
Scanning Electron Micrographs of tamarin seeds biochar.
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 527 | Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology.
Volume 8 Issue 3.
December 2023 Hal 517-538 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy The peak of the wavenumber will present the functional group.
Figure 5 and Table 4 show the BST have different peaks.
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) is an analysis method to characterize the samples by identifying functional groups in the surface of materials (Nandiyanto et al.
, 2019.
Sukamto & Rahmat, 2023.
Nandiyanto et al.
, 2.
In Table 4, the OH .
absorption peak associated with water or other OH groups at wavenumbers around 3220 and 3342 cmAA is still visible at temperatures of 300AC and 400AC, respectively.
C-H .
absorption peaks are also observed in the 2920, 2921, and 2972 cmAA regions, representing C-H stretching (Wu et , 2.
As the temperature increases to 400AC and 500AC, the intensity of the OH and C-H absorption peaks begins to decrease due to decomposition.
At a temperature of 600AC, the absorption peaks of the two functional groups disappear, indicating the degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose (Usman et al.
, 2.
Compounds such as ketones or aldehydes may appear at around 1600-1800 cmAA.
The intense peak at 1635 cmAA is the stretching vibration of the carbonyl group (C=O) (Padman et al.
, 2.
Absorption peaks representing aromatic carbon C=C .
ouble bond.
can begin to appear at around 1500-1600 cmAA.
This may indicate the formation of double bonds in the compounds formed during pyrolysis (Fernandes et al.
, 2.
The wavenumber range 1527-1635 cmAA indicates the presence of a C=C group on the lignin aromatic ring, with peaks at 1527 and 1523 cmAA included in the C=C bond.
As shown in the table, the higher the pyrolysis temperature, the more stable the double bonds of aromatic compounds become, leading to the decomposition of aromatic compounds (Chen et al.
, 2.
The wavenumber 1366 corresponds to the CH3 bond, while the peak in the range of 1156-1063 is attributed to the CO stretching or CN stretching vibrations of aliphatic primary amines (Chatterjee et al.
, and 447 corresponds to the CAeC bond.
At higher temperatures, decomposition continues significantly.
The intensity of the O-H and C-H absorption peaks is likely to be greatly reduced or even disappear.
This event is caused by the degradation and transformation of hemicellulose .
AC), cellulose .
AC), and lignin .
-600AC) in a homogeneous state and a highly aromatic carbon structure (Fernandes et al.
, 2.
Figure 5.
Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FTIR) spectra for biochar from tamarin seeds for different temperatures of pyrolysis DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 Rahmat et al.
Characteristics of Tamarind Seed Biochar at Different Pyrolysis A | 528 Table 4.
Functional group of tamarind seed biochar.
Biochar
TSB-300
TSB-400
TSB-500
The COC .
riple bon.
absorption peak that appears at 2327 cmAA indicates the formation of alkyne compounds involving triple bonds between carbon atoms, and C=C .
romatic ring.
becomes more pronounced at a temperature of 600AC.
Both functional groups indicate a higher carbon value and the purity of the carbon produced (Nasution and Rambe, 2.
The peak area at 2327 cmAA also represents the CON stretch (Nandiyanto et al.
, 2.
The application of highly aromatic biochar without functional groups to reduce nutrient loss or remove soil
contaminants can be inefficient due to the absence of surface charges capable of nutrients or Functional Group
TSB-600
O-H stretching C-H stretching COC.
CON stretching C=O stretching C=C aromatic bonds CH3 bending C-O bonds C-C bonds X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis The results of X-ray fluorescence Analysis show the percentage of elements that have been normalized to 100%.
Based on Table 5, at least 14 elements were detected in X-ray fluorescence analysis.
these elements are K2O.
CaO.
P2O5.
SO3.
MgO.
Fe2O3.
ZnO.
TiO2.
MnO.
CuO.
Rb2O.
SrO.
SnO2.
TeO2.
The five dominant element contents are K2O.
CaO.
P2O5.
SO3, and MgO.
Specifically, the K2O content ranges from 52% to 55%, the CaO content ranges from 26% to 29%, the P2O5 content ranges from 10% to 11%, the SO3 content ranges from 1.
8% to 3.
5%, and the MgO content ranges from 2% to 3%.
Increasing the pyrolysis temperature does not affect the content of K2O.
CaO, or P2O5 Table 5.
Element content of tamarind seed biochar.
Element .
K2O
CaO
P2O5
SO3
MgO
Fe2O3
ZnO
TiO2
MnO
CuO
Rb2O
SrO
SnO2
TeO2
TSB-300
TSB-400
TSB-500
29,60
TSB-600
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 529 | Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology.
Volume 8 Issue 3.
December 2023 Hal 517-538 However, increasing the pyrolysis temperature leads to a decrease in the SO 3 content, while conversely, it increases the MgO content.
The elemental percentage of biochar varies with temperature due to its volatility and the influence of pyrolysis temperature on the composition and chemical structure of biochar.
Additionally, the partial diffraction or devolatilization of these elements at high temperatures affects the concentration of elements in biochar (Hossain et al.
, 2011.
Claoston et al.
, 2.
Potential Application of Tamarin Seed Biochar as Soil Amendment The USDA classifies red soils as being found in tropical and subtropical zones around the world, covering 6.
4109 hectares or 45% of the world's land area.
In Indonesia, red soils encompass 51 million ha, which is approximately 27% of the land area.
According to Indonesian soil classification, these soils are divided into four primary groups: red-yellow Mediterranean soil.
Latosol.
Red Yellow Podzolic soil, and Lateritic soil.
They are considered marginal soils with several issues, including low pH and low organic matter (Paiman & Armando, 2.
, deficient nutrients (Paiman & Armando.
Sarno, et al.
, 2.
, high aluminum (A.
content and low base saturation (Paiman & Armando, 2.
, and low cation exchange capacity, making them susceptible to erosion (Sarno, et al.
, 2.
Following this problem tamarin seed biochar has potential as soil amendments, where soil amendments can improve the soil conditions.
Based on the proximate analysis, the fixed carbon content ranges from 43% to 67%.
This carbon content can enhance the carbon content of the soil.
Furthermore, tamarind seed biochar contains K2O.
CaO.
P2O5.
SO3, and MgO, with these elements categorized as K.
Ca, and Mg can also be classified as alkaline elements.
Alkaline elements are useful for increasing soil pH through a liming mechanism.
Tamarind seed biochar contains alkaline cations such as Ca2 .
Mg2 , and K , as confirmed by elemental analysis.
When biochar is applied to acidic soil, the alkaline cations within the biochar replace exchangeable H and Al3 ions.
As depicted in Fig.
3, free H ions react with OH ions to form neutral water or CO32- or HCO3- ions, generating unstable H2CO3, which readily dissociates to produce CO2 and H2O.
These liming effects can elevate soil pH and enhance soil fertility, particularly in acidic soils with high levels of harmful aluminum, thereby increasing crop productivity.
CONCLUSION
Treatment with varying pyrolysis temperatures affects the proximate data, morphology .
ore structur.
, functional groups, and element content of tamarind seed biochar.
The results indicate that as the pyrolysis temperature increases, the fixed carbon content also increases.
Pores begin to form on the surface of the biochar at a temperature of 400AC.
We have identified functional groups such as C-H.
O-H.
CON.
COC.
C=C.
C=O.
CH3.
C-O, and C-C in the biochar.
The dominant elements in tamarind seed biochar are K2O.
CaO.
P2O5.
SO3, and MgO, all of which are considered macronutrients and alkaline elements that have the potential to enhance soil quality when used as soil
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the facilities, scientific, and technical support from ELayanan Sains.
Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional.
AUTHORSAo NOTE The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.
The authors confirmed that the paper was free of plagiarism.
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
17509/ijost.
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045 Rahmat et al.
Characteristics of Tamarind Seed Biochar at Different Pyrolysis A | 530
REFERENCES