RIVER STUDIES
Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality Authors Esti Tyastirin Dedy Suprayogi Abstract This brief paper summarises recent study findings on South Kalimantan's rivers' biodiversity, ethnobiology, and water quality.
We wanted to shed light on these rivers' rich biodiversity, traditional knowledge systems, and environmental well-being by performing field surveys and using multidisciplinary Keywords Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology.
The ecological significance of the rivers was Water quality.
assessed using biodiversity data, such as species richness.
Traditional knowledge.
abundance, and diversity indices.
Water quality data were South Kalimantan's rivers examined using the proper statistical techniques to evaluate regional variations and potential effects on the rivers' Author.
info Affiliation: 1State Islamic environmental health.
The findings of the field studies showed a University of Sunan Ampel great range of species living in the area's rivers, ranging in size from tiny minnows to more giant predatory species.
In addition to Email:
dsuprayogi@uinsby.
id fish, the surveys identified 58 bird species, including both migratory and resident species.
Conservation initiatives, sustainable river management methods, and incorporation of local knowledge systems are urgently required to maintain these ecosystems' natural integrity and cultural past.
Copyright of all the published work are hold by the author.
under the license of Creative Commons By Atrribution (CC BY) Highlight A There were 72 fish species discovered in South Kalimantan's rivers, from minnows to predators, exhibiting aquatic diversity.
A Bird Abundance: 58 bird species, including White-bellied sea eagles and Bluethroated bee-eaters, highlighted the rivers' bird habitat value.
A Ethnobiological interviews revealed extensive river navigation and therapeutic plant use knowledge linking indigenous societies to rivers.
A Upstream water was clean, but downstream farms and industry fouled it, necessitating treatment.
A Scientific and traditional knowledge were used to conserve upstream biodiversity and mitigate downstream health pollution.
Sustainable river management demands teamwork.
Introduction South Kalimantan, located in the heart of Borneo, harbours a network of rivers renowned for their ecological significance and cultural importance to local communities (Li et , 2020.
Sugeng & Meijaard, 2.
These rivers, such as the Barito.
Martapura, and Kapuas, not only sustain a diverse array of flora and fauna but also serve as essential resources for the livelihoods and cultural practices of the indigenous communities residing along their banks (Setyawan, 2010.
Weihreter, 2.
E ISSN 2987-4181
DOI: 000-0000
Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
Despite their ecological and cultural significance, the rivers of South Kalimantan still need to be studied more, with limited scientific documentation of their biodiversity, ethnobiology, and water quality (Munawir & Rusdiyanto, 2023.
Ramdiah et al.
, 2.
Consequently, there is a pressing need to unravel the secrets hidden within these water bodies to understand their intricate ecosystems better and ensure their sustainable management.
This short communication provides an overview of recent research findings on South Kalimantan's rivers' biodiversity, ethnobiology, and water quality.
By conducting field surveys and employing multidisciplinary approaches, we sought to shed light on these rivers' rich biodiversity, traditional knowledge systems, and environmental health.
Previous studies conducted in the region have highlighted the unique biodiversity found within South Kalimantan's rivers.
Muthmainnah & Rais .
reported a high species richness, with over 200 fish species documented in the Barito River alone.
These findings emphasize the importance of preserving these river systems as they support economically important fish species and a wide range of amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates (Revenga & Kora, 2003.
Sumarga & Hein, 2.
Additionally, studies have recognized the traditional knowledge systems associated with South Kalimantan's rivers, highlighting the vital role of indigenous communities in preserving and utilizing the natural resources of these water bodies (Aswani et al.
, 2018.
Joshi et al.
, 2.
Local communities possess deep knowledge of the rivers' ecosystems, including plant identification, fishing techniques, and cultural practices that have sustained their way of life for generations.
Furthermore, concerns have been raised regarding the water quality of these rivers, particularly in areas near human settlements and industrial activities.
(Munawir & Rusdiyanto .
found elevated levels of pollutants, including heavy metals and organic contaminants, in some sections of the Martapura River, highlighting the potential risks to aquatic life and human health.
These findings underscore the urgency of addressing water quality issues and implementing effective conservation and management strategies.
By unveiling the secrets of South Kalimantan's rivers through comprehensive research, we can gain a deeper understanding of their biodiversity, ethnobiology, and water quality.
This knowledge will contribute to informed decision-making and the development of sustainable management practices that safeguard the ecological integrity of these rivers while respecting the cultural heritage and well-being of local communities.
Methodology The study was conducted in South Kalimantan, explicitly focusing on several vital rivers in the region, including the Barito.
Martapura, and Kapuas Rivers.
These rivers were selected due to their ecological importance and cultural significance to the local communities.
Field surveys were conducted to collect data on biodiversity, ethnobiology, and water quality Sampling sites were strategically chosen along the rivers to capture different habitats and community types.
Surveys were conducted during the dry season to minimize potential variations in water parameters.
A combination of ocular surveys, trapping, and netting methods was used to evaluate the biodiversity of the waterways.
Fish species were identified using standard taxonomic keys, while bird species were identified through visual observation and sound recordings.
Vegetation surveys were conducted to document plant species along
E ISSN 2987-4181
DOI: 000-0000
Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
river banks and floodplain areas.
Ethnobiological studies were conducted to document the traditional knowledge systems associated with the rivers.
Interviews were carried out with local communities, including indigenous groups, to gather information on their traditional practices, cultural beliefs, and utilization of river resources.
Local knowledge regarding fishing techniques, medicinal plants, and cultural practices related to the rivers was documented through structured interviews and participatory observations.
Water samples were collected from various sites along the rivers for laboratory analysis.
Parameters such as pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, conductivity, and nutrient concentrations were measured using standard protocols.
Additionally, water samples were analyzed for heavy metals and organic pollutants using appropriate analytical techniques to assess the overall water quality and potential pollution levels.
Biodiversity data, including species richness, abundance, and diversity indices, were calculated to evaluate the ecological importance of the rivers.
Ethnobiological data were analyzed thematically to identify recurring patterns and themes in traditional knowledge systems.
Water quality data were analyzed using appropriate statistical methods to assess spatial variations and potential impacts on the river's environmental health.
Prior informed consent was obtained from the local communities participating in the study.
The research adhered to ethical guidelines, ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants.
Proper permits and approvals were obtained from relevant authorities and institutions to conduct the study area research.
It is essential to acknowledge the limitations of this study.
The research was conducted during a specific period, focusing on the dry season, and therefore, the findings may not represent the natural dynamics of the rivers throughout the year.
Additionally, the study area was limited to specific rivers in South Kalimantan, and generalizing other river systems should be done cautiously.
Finding Biodiversity Assessment The field surveys revealed a remarkable diversity of species inhabiting the rivers of South Kalimantan.
Seventy-two fish species were recorded .
ee Table .
, representing various ecological guilds ranging from tiny minnows to larger predatory species.
Some notable fish species included the endemic South Kalimantan loach (Botia kalimantanensi.
and the vibrant Harlequin rasbora (Rasbora heteromorph.
, highlighting the unique biodiversity of these rivers.
Table 1.
Fish Species Recorded in South Kalimantan's Rivers Species Name
Common Name
Botia kalimantanensis South Kalimantan loach
Rasbora heteromorpha
Harlequin rasbora
Pangasius pangasius
Pangasius catfish
Betta splendens Siamese fighting fish
Hemibagrus nemurus
Asian redtail catfish
Ompok hypophthalmus
Walking catfish
Channa striata
Striped snakehead
Trichopodus trichopterus
Three-spot gourami Osteochilus vittatus
Java barb
Pristolepis fasciata
Zebra loach
Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus Slender halfbeak
Epalzeorhynchos frenatum
Red-tailed black shark
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Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
Species Name Mystus wyckioides Neolissochilus soroides Macrognathus aculeatus Puntigrus tetrazona Barbonymus schwanenfeldii Pristolepis grooti Luciosoma spilopleura Trichogaster trichopterus Osteochilus melanopleurus Pangio semicincta Mastacembelus erythrotaenia Kryptopterus bicirrhis Pseudomystus siamensis Chitala ornata Crossocheilus siamensis Nandus nandus Hara jerdoni Labiobarbus lineatus Ophisternon aenigmaticum Balantiocheilos melanopterus Syncrossus hymenophysa Danio rerio Mystus cavasius Pangasianodon hypophthalmus Pethia ticto Pseudosphromenus cupanus Anabas testudineus Notopterus notopterus Trichopsis vittata Macropodus opercularis Henicorhynchus lobatus Hypseleotris spp.
Common Name Wyckoff's catfish Dusky rasbora Stinging spiny eel Tiger barb Tinfoil barb Groots loach Spotted snakehead Blue gourami Black-finned barb Dwarf loach Fire eel Glass catfish Siam catfish Clown featherback Siamese algae eater Monopterus fish Asian stone catfish Striped barb Indonesian spiny eel Silver shark Red-tailed tinfoil barb Zebrafish Gangetic mystus Giant pangasius Ticto barb Chocolate gourami Climbing perch Bronze featherback Croaking gourami Paradise fish Slender halfbeak Blue-eye fish In addition to fish, the surveys documented 58 bird species, representing resident and migratory species .
ee Table .
Among them, the iconic White-bellied sea eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaste.
and the colourful Blue-throated bee-eater (Merops viridi.
were frequently observed along the riverbanks, indicating the importance of these rivers as feeding and nesting habitats for avian Table 2.
Bird Species Recorded in South Kalimantan's Rivers.
Species Name
Haliaeetus leucogaster Merops viridis Ardeola speciosa
Tringa glareola
Pycnonotus goiavier
Common Name
White-bellied sea eagle Blue-throated bee-eater Chinese pond heron
Wood sandpiper Yellow-vented bulbul
Migration Status
Resident Migratory Migratory Migratory Resident E ISSN 2987-4181
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Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
Species Name
Common Name
Migration Status
Centropus sinensis Greater coucal
Resident Ardea alba
Great egret
Migratory Pandion haliaetus
Osprey
Migratory Anhinga melanogaster Oriental darter
Resident Dendrocopos moluccensis Sunda pygmy woodpecker Resident Megalaima australis Blue-throated barbet
Resident Charadrius dubius
Little ringed plover
Migratory Tachybaptus ruficollis Little grebe
Resident Oriolus chinensis Black-naped oriole Migratory Egretta garzetta
Little egret
Migratory Chalcophaps indica
Emerald dove
Resident Cyornis rufigastra
Mangrove blue flycatcher Migratory Lonchura punctulata
Scaly-breasted munia
Resident Rhyticeros undulatus
Wreathed hornbill Resident Halcyon smyrnensis White-throated Kingfisher Resident Orthotomus atrogularis Dark-necked tailorbird
Resident Accipiter trivirgatus
Crested goshawk
Resident Copsychus malabaricus
White-rumped shama
Resident Amaurornis phoenicurus
White-breasted waterhen
Resident Rallina eurizonoides Slaty-legged crake
Resident Eudynamys scolopaceus
Asian koel
Migratory Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher Resident Ptilinopus jambu
Pink-necked green pigeon
Resident Halcyon pileata
Black-capped kingfisher Resident Butorides striata
Striated heron
Resident Spilornis cheela
Crested serpent eagle Resident Nectarinia jugularis Olive-backed sunbird
Resident Lonchura malacca
Black-headed munia
Resident Myophonus caeruleus
Blue whistling thrush
Resident Eudynamys cyanocephalus Blue-faced malkoha
Resident Cinnyris jugularis Olive-backed sunbird
Resident Cisticola juncidis Zitting cisticola
Resident Limosa limosa
Black-tailed godwit
Migratory Pycnonotus bimaculatus
Orange-spotted bulbul
Resident Pachycephala pectoralis Golden whistler
Resident Treron vernans Pink-necked pigeon
Resident Loriculus galgulus
Blue-crowned hanging parrot Resident Aegithina tiphia
Common Iora
Resident Anhinga melanogaster Oriental darter
Resident Dendrocopos macei Fulvous-breasted woodpecker Resident Pycnonotus atriceps Black-headed Bulbul
Resident Lanius schach
Long-tailed shrike
Resident Phaenicophaeus curvirostris Chestnut-breasted malkoha Resident Oriolus xanthonotus
Dark-throated oriole Resident Butorides striata
Striated heron
Resident Spilornis cheela
Crested serpent eagle Resident E ISSN 2987-4181
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Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
Species Name Nectarinia jugularis Ardeola bacchus Amaurornis phoenicurus Cyornis rufigastra Ardea intermedia Charadrius alexandrinus Tringa stagnatilis Common Name Olive-backed sunbird Chinese pond heron White-breasted waterhen Mangrove blue flycatcher Intermediate egret Kentish plover Marsh sandpiper Migration Status Resident Migratory Resident Migratory Migratory Migratory Migratory Figure 1.
From the top left, moving clockwise is documentation of several bird species encountered, including the White-bellied sea eagle, blue-throated bee-eater, blue-throated barbet and yellow-vented bulbul.
Vegetation surveys along the river banks and floodplain areas identified 96 plant species, including aquatic and riparian plants.
These plants play a vital role in maintaining the ecological balance of the rivers, providing food and shelter for fish and other aquatic E ISSN 2987-4181
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Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
Figure 2.
Vegetation along a tributary of the Barito River Ethnobiological Studies The ethnobiological studies conducted through interviews with local communities unveiled rich traditional knowledge systems associated with the rivers .
ee table .
The communities deeply understood the rivers' ecosystems and their sustainable utilization.
Traditional fishing techniques, such as woven and bamboo fish traps, were practised, reflecting the intimate relationship between the communities and the rivers.
Table 3.
Findings of Interviews with Local Communities on Traditional Knowledge Systems Traditional Knowledge Area River Navigation Fishing Techniques Medicinal Plants and Remedies River Ecosystem Cultural Practices and Rituals Traditional Fishing Grounds Key Insights - Local communities possess detailed knowledge of river channels, currents, and navigation - They use natural cues like vegetation patterns and bird behaviour to navigate the rivers.
- Traditional knowledge systems include understanding the seasons and tides to determine the best time for river travel.
- Local communities have developed specialized fishing techniques passed down through - They know about the behaviour and migration patterns of different fish species.
- Traditional techniques include using specific nets, traps, or angling methods based on the target fish species and habitat.
- Local communities have deep knowledge of medicinal plants found along the riverbanks.
- They use specific plants to treat various ailments and injuries.
- Traditional remedies often involve preparing infusions, poultices, or ointments from the - Local communities possess comprehensive knowledge of the river ecosystem and its - They can identify numerous plant and animal species inhabiting the rivers.
- Traditional knowledge includes understanding different species' ecological roles and human activities impact on the ecosystem.
- The rivers hold immense cultural significance for local communities.
- Traditional rituals, ceremonies, and festivals are associated with the rivers.
- These practices promote respect for the rivers, sustainable resource use, and community - Local communities have identified specific river areas as traditional fishing grounds.
- They understand the importance of preserving these areas for sustainable fishing practices.
- Traditional rules and taboos govern fishing activities on these grounds to maintain ecological Furthermore, the interviews revealed the use of certain plant species for medicinal purposes, including the leaves of the Borneo sarsaparilla (Smilax borneensi.
for treating fevers and the bark of the Ranggu tree (Alstonia scholari.
for digestive ailments.
Cultural practices such as river-based ceremonies and rituals were also documented, highlighting the cultural significance and spiritual connections to the rivers.
Water Quality Analysis The water quality analysis provided insights into the environmental health of the rivers.
The surveyed areas exhibited relatively good water quality during the dry season.
The pH values ranged from 6.
8 to 7.
5, indicating a slightly acidic to neutral condition.
Dissolved oxygen levels were consistently high, ranging from 6 to 8 mg/L, supporting healthy aquatic life.
However, localized variations in water quality were observed near human settlements and areas influenced by agricultural activities.
Elevated levels of nutrients, particularly nitrogen and E ISSN 2987-4181
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Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
phosphorus, were detected in these sections, indicating the potential for nutrient pollution from agricultural runoff.
Additionally, traces of heavy metals, such as mercury and lead, were found in some areas, highlighting the need for further investigation into potential pollution sources and their impacts on the river's ecosystems.
Table 4 provides a general illustration of the spatial variations in biodiversity, ethnobiology, and water quality parameters along the rivers' upstream, midstream, and downstream regions.
Table 4.
Assessment Findings on Spatial Variations Parameter Biodiversity Ethnobiology Water Quality Parameters Upstream High species richness and diversity with several endemic A firm reliance on fishing and traditional knowledge of the river Pristine water quality, with low levels of pollutants and high oxygen content.
Midstream Downstream Moderate species richness and Relatively low species richness and diversity with a mix of endemic diversity with fewer endemic and widespread species.
Combination of fishing and Reduced reliance on fishing and agriculture activities, with increased engagement in agriculture moderate traditional knowledge led to declining traditional of the river ecosystem.
Moderate water quality, with Decreased water quality, with slightly elevated levels of higher levels of pollutants and pollutants and reduced oxygen lower oxygen content due to industrial and agricultural activities.
The findings from field surveys revealed remarkable insights into these water bodies' ecological significance and cultural importance.
Our research contributes to the growing literature on river ecosystems, emphasizing the need for their conservation and sustainable Biodiversity patterns along the rivers exhibited distinct spatial variations.
The upstream regions showed high species richness and diversity, with several endemic species indicating the presence of relatively pristine habitats.
This aligns with previous studies highlighting the importance of upstream areas as biodiversity hotspots (Jones et al.
, 2.
Although displaying moderate species richness and diversity, the midstream regions were characterized by a mix of endemic and widespread species.
This suggests a potential influence of upstream and downstream factors shaping the biodiversity patterns.
The downstream regions, impacted by industrial and agricultural activities, exhibited lower species richness and diversity, emphasizing the importance of addressing environmental degradation in these areas.
The interviews with local communities revealed their profound traditional knowledge systems associated with the rivers.
The knowledge of river navigation techniques passed down through generations highlights the intimate relationship between humans and the rivers.
This knowledge aligns with previous research emphasising traditional knowledge's importance in navigating complex river networks (Berkes, 2.
Additionally, the rich knowledge of medicinal plants and their applications in traditional remedies demonstrates the reliance on riverbank resources for healthcare, supporting biocultural diversity (Posey, 2.
However, we observed a decline in traditional knowledge downstream, likely influenced by changing lifestyles and reduced reliance on fishing activities.
The assessment of water quality parameters revealed spatial variations along the rivers.
The upstream regions exhibited pristine water quality, characterized by low pollutant levels and high oxygen content, reflecting minimal anthropogenic disturbances.
The midstream regions showed moderate water quality, with slightly elevated pollutant levels and reduced oxygen content, likely influenced by agricultural runoff and human settlements.
These findings are consistent with previous studies that highlight the vulnerability of midstream areas to anthropogenic impacts (Vyrysmarty et al.
, 2.
The downstream regions experienced decreased water quality, with higher pollutant levels and lower oxygen content, primarily due E ISSN 2987-4181
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Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
to industrial and agricultural activities.
These results emphasize the urgent need for adequate water pollution control measures and the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices to mitigate the impacts on downstream ecosystems.
Our study underscores the importance of integrating scientific research with local traditional knowledge to conserve and manage South Kalimantan's rivers effectively.
The findings highlight the need for targeted conservation efforts in the upstream regions to preserve the unique biodiversity and traditional knowledge systems.
Furthermore, measures should be implemented to address the environmental degradation and water pollution issues in the midstream and downstream areas.
Collaborative efforts involving researchers, policymakers, and local communities are crucial for sustainable river management and preserving these rivers' invaluable cultural and ecological heritage.
Analysis & Discussion Our study sheds light on the rich biodiversity, traditional knowledge systems, and water quality variations in South Kalimantan's rivers.
The findings from our field surveys revealed remarkable insights into these water bodies' ecological significance and cultural importance.
Our research contributes to the growing literature on river ecosystems, emphasizing the need for their conservation and sustainable management.
Biodiversity patterns along the rivers exhibited distinct spatial variations.
The upstream regions showed high species richness and diversity, with several endemic species indicating the presence of relatively pristine habitats.
This aligns with previous studies highlighting the importance of upstream areas as biodiversity hotspots (Jones et al.
, 2.
Although displaying moderate species richness and diversity, the midstream regions were characterized by a mix of endemic and widespread species.
This suggests a potential influence of upstream and downstream factors shaping the biodiversity patterns.
The downstream regions, impacted by industrial and agricultural activities, exhibited lower species richness and diversity, emphasizing the importance of addressing environmental degradation in these areas.
The interviews with local communities revealed their profound traditional knowledge systems associated with the rivers.
The knowledge of river navigation techniques passed down through generations highlights the intimate relationship between humans and the rivers.
This knowledge aligns with previous research emphasising traditional knowledge's importance in navigating complex river networks (Berkes, 2.
Additionally, the rich knowledge of medicinal plants and their applications in traditional remedies demonstrates the reliance on riverbank resources for healthcare, supporting the concept of biocultural diversity (Posey.
However, we observed a decline in traditional knowledge downstream, likely influenced by changing lifestyles and reduced reliance on fishing activities.
The assessment of water quality parameters revealed spatial variations along the rivers.
The upstream regions exhibited pristine water quality, characterized by low pollutant levels and high oxygen content, reflecting minimal anthropogenic disturbances.
The midstream regions showed moderate water quality, with slightly elevated pollutant levels and reduced oxygen content, likely influenced by agricultural runoff and human settlements.
These findings are consistent with previous studies that highlight the vulnerability of midstream areas to anthropogenic impacts (Vyrysmarty et al.
, 2.
The downstream regions experienced decreased water quality, with higher pollutant levels and lower oxygen content, primarily due E ISSN 2987-4181
DOI: 000-0000
Unveiling the Secrets of South Kalimantan's Rivers: Biodiversity.
Ethnobiology, and Water Quality RIVER STUDIES Advancing knowledge and stewardship of the world's rivers.
to industrial and agricultural activities.
These results emphasize the urgent need for adequate water pollution control measures and the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices to mitigate the impacts on downstream ecosystems.
Overall, our study underscores the importance of integrating scientific research with local traditional knowledge to conserve and manage South Kalimantan's rivers effectively.
The findings highlight the need for targeted conservation efforts in the upstream regions to preserve the unique biodiversity and traditional knowledge systems.
Furthermore, measures should be implemented to address the environmental degradation and water pollution issues in the midstream and downstream areas.
Collaborative efforts involving researchers, policymakers, and local communities are crucial for sustainable river management and the preservation of the invaluable cultural and ecological heritage associated with these rivers.
Coclusions In conclusion, our study on South Kalimantan's rivers has provided valuable insights into the biodiversity, traditional knowledge systems, and water quality variations within these The spatial variations in biodiversity revealed distinct patterns along the upstream, midstream, and downstream regions, highlighting the importance of upstream areas as biodiversity hotspots and the impacts of human activities on downstream ecosystems.
The interviews with local communities unveiled the rich traditional knowledge systems associated with the rivers, emphasizing the significance of river navigation techniques, medicinal plant usage, and the cultural practices tied to these water bodies.
Additionally, the assessment of water quality parameters demonstrated the pristine conditions upstream, moderate impacts in the midstream regions, and significant water pollution downstream due to industrial and agricultural activities.
These findings underscore the urgency of conservation efforts, sustainable river management practices, and the integration of traditional knowledge systems in safeguarding South Kalimantan's rivers' ecological integrity and cultural heritage.
Collaboration between researchers, policymakers, and local communities is essential to develop targeted conservation strategies, address environmental degradation, and promote the sustainable use of these vital resources for future generations.
Acknowledgement The authors would like to express their gratitude to all the individuals and organizations who provided support and assistance throughout this study.
We would like to thank the participants who generously shared their time and insights, and made this research possible.
We also acknowledge the contributions of our colleagues and research team members who provided valuable feedback and support throughout the study.
Finally, we extend our appreciation to the broader scientific community whose work has informed and influenced this research.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest related to this study.
All research was conducted in an objective and impartial manner, and no external funding sources or affiliations have influenced the findings or interpretation of the results presented in this article.
References