Volume 25 Number 2
E-ISSN: 2502-2210
Al-Tahrir
Nopember 2025
P-ISSN: 1412-7512
Page: 377-394 DOI: 10.
21154/tahrir.
Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Arbitration and the Emergence of Sectarianism: A Historical Examination of the Transition of Conflict from Politics to Theology Deni Irawan1.
Kasman1.
Safrudin Edi Wibowo1.
Miftah Arifin1 Universitas Islam Negeri Kiai Haji Achmad Siddiq Jember.
Indonesia Corresponding email: d3ni.
ok@gmail.
Received: 11/07/2025 Revised: 30/09/2025 Accepted: 21/11/2025 The schism within the Islamic community reached its zenith following the Battle of Abstract Siffn, when the process of Taukm, intended to alleviate the conflict between Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, instead incited theological divisions.
This research focuses on how Taukm transformed the dispute from practical politics into doctrinal debate, giving rise to various sectarian movements.
This study aims to critically and historically examine the role of Taukm in the emergence of sects such as the KhawArij.
Shah.
Murjiah, and other theological factions.
The methodology employed is a literature review, analysing classical documents and contemporary academic literature that discuss the socio-political context, the arbitration process, and the responses of various groups following Taukm.
The findings indicate that this arbitration not only resolved military disputes but also served as a catalyst for the formation of a fragmented Islamic intellectual structure.
The implications of this study underscore the importance of re-reading the history of internal Islamic conflict in an objective and inclusive manner, enabling the community to learn from past experiences, maintain unity, and avoid the politicisation of religion that could undermine Abstrak Keywords Perpecahan dalam umat Islam memuncak pasca Perang Siffn, ketika proses Taukm yang dimaksudkan untuk meredakan konflik antara Ali bin Abi Thalib dan Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan justru memicu perpecahan teologis.
Penelitian ini berfokus pada bagaimana Taukm mengalihkan perselisihan dari politik praktis menjadi perdebatan doktrinal yang melahirkan berbagai aliran sektarian.
Tujuan studi ini adalah untuk mengkaji secara historis dan kritis peran Taukm dalam lahirnya aliran-aliran seperti KhawArij.
Syiah.
Murjiah, dan aliran teologis lainnya.
Metode yang digunakan adalah studi pustaka dengan analisis dokumen klasik dan literatur akademik kontemporer yang membahas konteks sosial-politik, proses arbitrase, serta respons kelompokkelompok setelah Taukm.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa arbitrase ini tidak hanya menyelesaikan sengketa militer, tetapi juga menjadi pemicu terbentuknya struktur pemikiran Islam yang terfragmentasi.
Implikasi dari studi ini menekankan pentingnya membaca ulang sejarah konflik internal Islam dengan cara yang objektif dan inklusif, agar umat dapat belajar dari pengalaman masa lalu, menjaga persatuan, dan menghindari politisasi agama yang dapat merusak ukhuwwah.
theological conflict.
battle of jamal.
battle of siffn.
taukm A 2025 by the authors.
This is an open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.
0 International License (CC BY NC) license .
ttps://creativecommons.
org/licenses/bync/4.
0/).
Published by Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Ponorogo.
Indonesia Accredited Sinta 2 Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Introduction The assassination of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan in the year 35 AH/656 CE marks a significant turning point in Islamic history, concluding the golden era of the Rashidun Caliphs.
This event engendered a legitimacy crisis in leadership and incited political and social divisions among the Muslim community.
The situation became further complicated when Ali ibn Abi Talib was appointed as the fourth caliph amidst rising tensions, with the demand for justice against Uthman's murderers emerging as a central issue that ultimately fractured the community.
This tension precipitated armed conflict, beginning with the Battle of Jamal, which involved Aisha.
Talha, and Zubair, who sought justice for Uthman's death.
This was followed by the Battle of Siffn, where Ali confronted Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, who also demanded justice for UthmanAos death and delayed his allegiance until justice was served.
3 Both events marked the culmination of internal tensions within the Muslim community and paved the way for prolonged ideological divisions.
The Battle of Siffn in 37 AH/657 CE concluded with an agreement between the forces of Ali and Muawiyah to resolve the conflict through arbitration.
4 Abu Musa al-Ash'ari represented Ali, while Amr ibn al-Aas represented Muawiyah.
Although this decision was intended to achieve a peaceful resolution, it instead sparked controversy among the Kharijites, who had initially aligned with Ali.
5 They rejected the arbitration, arguing that leadership decisions should be based on the law of Allah, rather than human Their slogan, "lA uukma illA li-llAh" .
here is no judgment except that of Alla.
, encapsulated their stance.
What was meant to be a solution through arbitration instead became a catalyst for profound ideological rifts within Islam, giving rise to the Kharijite and Sabaiyyah .
ollowers of Abdullah ibn Sab.
movements, which later contributed to the emergence of Shah .
artisans of Al.
Islam.
The Sabaiyyah refers to a faction attributed to Abdullah ibn SabaAo, a figure believed to have introduced theological narratives linking political legitimacy with divine right.
7 Historical sources such as Tarikh al-Tabari and al-BidAyah wa al-NihAyahdescribe Abdullah ibn SabaAo as a controversial agitator who propagated the idea that Ali ibn Abi Talib possessed divine authority and was the rightful successor 1 Febri Rahmadhani.
AoAl-Fitnah Al-Kubra Roots Sectarianism in IslamAo.
El-Ghiroh: Jurnal Studi Keislaman 22, no.
March 2.
: 77Ae85, https://doi.
org/10.
37092/el-ghiroh.
2 How Did the Assassination of Uthman Trigger the Fitna? 2025, https://w.
com/watch?v=b7YFg167FTA.
3 Shibeeb.
AoThe Battle of SiffinAo.
4 ynnkal.
AoTahkim Olayi yuzerine Bir DeerlendirmeAo.
5 Umi Septina Anggraheni et al.
AoFlashback of The Khawarij Stream in History: From Its Inception to the Distortion of Its TeachingsAo.
Matan: Journal of Islam and Muslim Society 6, no.
July 2.
: 79Ae91, https://doi.
org/10.
20884/1.
AoTahkim Olayi yuzerine Bir DeerlendirmeAo.
6 Resti Novita Dewi.
Deni Maulana, and Oznur Tasdoken.
AoShia Is One of the Sects in IslamAo.
Al-Mubin: Islamic Scientific Journal 7, no.
September 2.
: 100Ae112, https://doi.
org/10.
51192/almubin.
7 Nasution.
Identifikasi Tokoh Abdullah Bin SabaAo Dalam Literatur Sunni Dan SyiAoah.
Peerzada.
Similarity between the Life of St.
Paul and Abdullah Ibn Saba: Their Contribution and Influence on Christianity and Islam.
Deni Irawan.
Kasman.
Safrudin Edi Wibowo.
Miftah Arifin / Arbitration and the Emergence of Sectarianism: A Historical Examination of the Transition of Conflict from Politics to Theology to the Prophet.
8 This group asserted that Ali and his descendants held spiritual supremacy, establishing the earliest ideological foundation for wilAyah .
piritual guardianshi.
within proto-ShiAoism.
Unlike the Kharijites, whose extreme theological approach and practice of takfr .
are widely documented in both classical and modern scholarship, 10 the Sabaiyyah require clarification, as the term specifically denotes a sectarian movement that evolved from political activism into an early prototype of Shah theology.
11 The Sabaiyyah thus represent a transitional phase in Islamic intellectual historyAibridging the shift from political dissent against the caliphate to a doctrinal assertion of divine leadership and spiritual inheritance .
mAma.
within the family of the Prophet.
The arbitration event signified a substantial transformation, like internal conflicts among Muslims, shifting from political disputes to theological differences.
13 The debates that initially revolved around the legitimacy of leadership and political justice evolved into deeper issues concerning takfr, faith, major sins, and the criteria for an individual to be considered a Muslim.
14 The Kharijites developed an extreme theology that readily deemed others as infidels, including Ali and Muawiyah.
15 Meanwhile, the Sabaiyyah began to establish a theological foundation regarding the rights of Ahl al-Bayt .
he family of the Prophe.
and the concept of imAmah.
16 This dynamic spurred the emergence of other theological sects, such as Murjiah .
he postponer.
Qadariyyah .
ree-will advocate.
, and Jabariyyah .
, which held differing views on fate and human will.
17 These theological disputes extended beyond leadership issues to encompass doctrinal truth and the authority to interpret Islamic Such theological divisions have persisted and remain characteristic of sectarianism within Islam to this day.
The study of the schism within the Muslim community during the early period is a significant topic in both classical and contemporary Islamic history.
Classical works such as TArkh al-abar by Abu Ja'far at-Thabari serve as primary references for understanding the internal conflicts among Muslims following the death of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan.
Additionally, al-BidAyah wa al-NihAyah by Ibn Kathir 8 al-Tabari.
The History of Al-Tabari.
Vol.
Ibn Katsir.
AoA EIE EIEA- A EA- AAoE EO OEINOA.
9 Rahman and Hamat.
AoSorotan Sejarah Kemunculan Syiah Dan Aliran UtamanyaAo.
Dewi et al.
AoShia Is One Of the Sects in IslamAo.
10 Fawait et al.
AoSejarah Kemunculan Khawarij dan Pemahamannya tentang HadisAo.
Anggraheni et al.
AoFlashback of The Khawarij Stream in HistoryAo.
11 Zaheer.
Shias and Shiaism.
AoSectarianism in IslamAo.
Shamsy et al.
AoExploring Early Sectarian Identity in IslamAo.
12 Madelung.
The Succession to Muhammad.
Rahmadhani.
AoAl-Fitnah Al-Kubra Roots Sectarianism In IslamAo.
13 AoSectarianism in IslamAo.
Sansarkan, slam dyynce geleneinde tahkim meselesi ve mezhebi ekoller yzerindeki etkisi.
14 Putrawan and Eunike.
AoIslamic RadicalismAo.
Anggraheni et al.
AoFlashback of The Khawarij Stream in HistoryAo.
15 Nurkhalis.
AoIslamic Theological Controversy on Theodicy and DestinyAo.
Anggraheni et al.
AoFlashback of The Khawarij Stream in HistoryAo.
16 Dewi.
Maulana, and Tasdoken.
AoShia Is One of the Sects in IslamAo.
17 Prayogi.
AoThe Theologicalism and Fiqhism in Islam A Descriptive StudyAo.
Supriadin.
Abubakar, and Arsyad.
AoDiskursus Teologi Qadariayah dan JabariahAo.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam provides a comprehensive overview of the political and social dynamics that instigated the divisions among early Muslims.
18 While these works present events chronologically, they have yet to analyse how political shifts could lead to theological schisms.
Contemporary studies, such as Gaiser's in Sectarianism in Islam: The Umma Divided, have begun to utilise a narrative-identity approach to understand the formation of sectarian identities within Islam.
This approach highlights how sectarian actors create narratives to imbue meaning within the context of the conflicts they face, thus providing a more comprehensive perspective compared to methodologies that focus solely on the chronology of events.
Despite the considerable research conducted on early Islamic conflicts and sectarianism, there remains a significant gap in the existing literature.
Most studies tend to concentrate on chronological accounts without analysing the causal relationships between arbitration and the emergence of 20 The lack of analysis placing arbitration as a pivotal moment in the transition from politics to theology constitutes a shortcoming in previous literature.
Numerous studies have separated political analysis from theological discourse, despite the close interrelation between the two in the context of 21 Furthermore, the limited application of hermeneutical or sociological approaches in interpreting the long-term implications of arbitration on Islamic thought also warrants attention.
Orientalism and sectarian bias continue to influence some of the literature, thereby compromising the objectivity of analyses and resulting in a non-holistic understanding of the roots of sectarianism within Islam.
This article aims to fill the gap in the literature by examining the arbitration event through a historical-critical lens and viewing it as a starting point for a fundamental transformation of ideology.
By combining historical.
Islamic thought, and conflict sociology approaches, this research offers a new interpretation that is more comprehensive regarding how political mechanisms can transform into the formation of theological sects.
24 The methodology employed integrates analyses of classical sources such as TArkh al-abar, al-BidAyah wa al-NihAyah, and other classical texts with modern academic perspectives to provide a balanced and objective understanding.
25 Through the analysis of classical sources and 18 Basor et al.
AoAn Text Study and Appreciation of Imam Ibn KatsirAos WorkAo.
Muna et al.
AoFrom Aisha to Fatima Al-FihriAo.
19 AoSectarianism in IslamAo.
20 Helli.
AoReligious and Sectarian Diversity in the Early Islamic Period.
A Study of UirAr b.
Amr al-GhaafAnAos .
AuKitAb al-TaurshAyAo.
Shamsy et al.
AoExploring Early Sectarian Identity in IslamAo.
21 al-Jamil.
AoSectarianism.
Pre-Modern Islamic History, and the Bequest of OrientalismAo.
Mohseni and Sagha.
AoFive Myths of Sectarianism within Islam in the Contemporary Middle East | Project on ShiAoism and Global AffairsAo.
22 Aldoughli.
AoMissing GenderAo.
Thaver.
Beyond Sectarianism.
23 al-Jamil.
AoSectarianism.
Pre-Modern Islamic History, and the Bequest of OrientalismAo.
Helli.
AoReligious and Sectarian Diversity in the Early Islamic Period.
A Study of UirAr b.
Amr al-GhaafAnAos .
AuKitAb al-TaurshAyAo.
24 Alioua.
AoSocial Conflict in Ibn KhaldunAos ThoughtAo.
Sentyrk and Naeem.
AoIslamic Thought and Its Implications for Current Sociological InquiryAo.
25 al Tabari.
AoA EIE EIEA- A OAE O EOAUA .
AoE O EO = O EE OEIEOEAIbn Katsir.
Ao A EIEA- A EA- AE EO OEINOA A AoEIEA.
Deni Irawan.
Kasman.
Safrudin Edi Wibowo.
Miftah Arifin / Arbitration and the Emergence of Sectarianism: A Historical Examination of the Transition of Conflict from Politics to Theology contemporary academic literature, this research aspires to make a significant contribution to Islamic thought, particularly in the studies of conflict, religious authority, and the formation of sectarian This study also endeavours to provide a balanced perspective in accordance with the methodology of Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-JamAah .
he Sunni orthodox.
in understanding this sensitive historical event while maintaining scientific objectivity and avoiding sectarian bias.
This research employs a qualitative-descriptive approach using a literature study to analyse the event of taukm .
and its implications for the emergence of sectarianism in Islam.
This method was chosen due to the historical nature of the topic, which requires a detailed examination of written sources and relevant literature.
26 The primary analytical framework is historical-critical, allowing the researcher to trace the background of events, analyse socio-political contexts, and identify causal links between arbitration and theological divisions.
27 In addition, an Islamic thought approach is used to evaluate the evolution of theological schools after arbitration, considering epistemological principles and the objective criteria of Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-JamAah.
The combination of these methods provides a balanced and comprehensive analysis that aligns with both historical facts and Islamic intellectual The primary data sources comprise scholarly journal articles that discuss political and theological conflicts in early Islam, particularly those related to arbitration, the KhawArij, and Shah.
These works were selected for their academic credibility and peer-reviewed status.
29 The secondary data sources include classical texts such as TArkh al-abar and al-BidAyah wa al-NihAyah, which provide chronological and contextual insights into early Islamic history.
30 Additionally, modern scholarly works such as Wilferd MadelungAos The Succession to Muhammad.
ShabanAos Islamic History: A New Interpretation, and Marshall HodgsonAos The Venture of Islam contribute to a broader understanding of the civilisational context of sectarian formation.
Data were collected through document analysis following the READ approach (ReadyAeExtractAe AnalyzeAeDisti.
developed by Dalglish.
Khalid, and McMahon .
32 This method ensures a structured and transparent process for analysing historical texts.
The READ approach consists of four 26 Dalglish et al.
AoDocument Analysis in Health Policy ResearchAo.
Werner.
AoQualitative Inhaltsanalyse und historische ForschungAo.
27 Moh Arvil Abdillah.
AoHistorical Approaches in Islamic StudiesAo.
ISTORIA: Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Ilmu Sejarah 19, no.
September 2.
, https://doi.
org/10.
21831/istoria.
Nur Ilani Mat Nawi and Shahir Akram Hassan.
AoDomain of Objectivity in Islamic Research Methodology According to the QuranAo.
International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development 10, no.
September 2.
, https://ijarped.
com/index.
php/journal/article/view/2099.
28 Abidi.
Sectarian Division in Islam.
Wehrey.
Beyond Sunni and Shia.
29 Dalglish et al.
AoDocument Analysis in Health Policy ResearchAo.
30 SyaAobani.
AoInterpretation of Hermeneutics and Religious NormativityAo.
Wasman et al.
AoA Critical Approach to Prophetic TraditionsAo.
31 Madelung.
The Succession to Muhammad.
Shaban.
Islamic History.
Hodgson.
The Venture of Islam.
32 Dalglish et al.
AoDocument Analysis in Health Policy ResearchAo.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam stages: .
Ready: Selecting relevant primary and secondary sources that align with the research Extract: Identifying and recording essential information, such as key quotations, thematic issues, and chronological patterns.
Analyze: Conducting comparative and thematic analysis to interpret patterns and relationships between arbitration and theological emergence.
Distil:
Synthesising findings into a coherent narrative that connects political dynamics with theological This approach enhances analytical precision and reduces researcher bias, ensuring that the historical interpretation remains evidence-based and methodologically rigorous.
The collected data were then examined using content and hermeneutic analysis to establish causal relationships between arbitration and the evolution of sectarian ideologies.
33 A contextualhistorical reading of texts was applied to interpret the significance of events within their socio-political 34 The analysis proceeded in three stages: thematic identification, comparative evaluation, and critical synthesis.
35 This combination of methods yields a holistic interpretation that adheres to historical accuracy and upholds the epistemological principles of Islamic scholarship.
Social-Political Conditions Following the Death of Caliph Umar bin Khattab The reign of Caliph Uthman bin Affan lasted for twelve years and comprised two distinct phases.
The first six years were characterized by political stability and significant economic prosperity.
During this period, the caliphate expanded to 4.
8 million square miles, encompassing North Africa.
Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Mediterranean islands such as Cyprus.
36 Uthman successfully implemented effective economic policies, resulting in a near eradication of poverty, to the extent that tax collectors could not find anyone eligible to receive zakAt.
Uthman was also known as a pious, gentle, generous, and religious figure, frequently engaging in worship and fasting.
37 However, in the latter half of his leadership, political tensions arose due to dissatisfaction with his policies, particularly concerning allegations of nepotism in appointing members of the Umayyad family to strategic positions.
38 This peaceful situation transformed into turmoil, culminating in Uthman's assassination in the year 35 AH/656 CE, marking the 33 Neimark.
AoHow to Use Content Analysis in Historical ResearchAo.
Werner.
AoQualitative Inhaltsanalyse und historische ForschungAo.
34 Saeed and Akbar.
AoContextualist Approaches and the Interpretation of the QurAoAnAo.
Wasman et al.
AoA Critical Approach to Prophetic TraditionsAo.
35 Nurkhalis and Fauzan.
AoHermeneutics Controvercies in Contemporary Islamic StudiesAo.
SyaAobani.
AoInterpretation of Hermeneutics and Religious NormativityAo.
36 Salman Bashar.
AoHazrat Uthman Ghani (RA): The Most Successful Ruler in Islamic and World HistoryAo, 24 May 2025, https://w.
com/pulse/hazrat-uthman-ghani-ra-most-successful-ruler-islamic-world-bashar-au4fc.
Abu Ruqayyah.
AoThe Achievements Of AoUthmAn Ibn Affan.
And the Events Leading to His MartyrdomAo.
March 2023.
37 al-Suyuti.
The History of the Khalifahs Who Took the Right Way.
Al-Aoarabi.
Defence Against Disaster.
al-Tabari.
The History of Al-Tabari.
Vol.
38 Murtiningsih.
AoTuduhan Nepotisme terhadap Utsman Bin Affan dan Pengaruhnya terhadap Kekhalifahan Ali Bin Abi ThalibAo.
Sefrianti et al.
AoUTSMAN BIN AFFANAo.
Deni Irawan.
Kasman.
Safrudin Edi Wibowo.
Miftah Arifin / Arbitration and the Emergence of Sectarianism: A Historical Examination of the Transition of Conflict from Politics to Theology end of the golden era of the caliphate and the onset of a major fitnah .
ivil strif.
in Islamic history.
The Assassination of Uthman bin Affan and the Beginning of Division The assassination of Caliph Uthman bin Affan in the year 35 AH/656 CE was the culmination of a systematic campaign led by Abdullah ibn SabaAo, a Jew from Yemen who disguised himself as a Muslim to spread propaganda.
40 Abdullah disseminated propaganda to incite the populace in Egypt.
Kufa, and Basra against Uthman, accusing him of nepotism and misappropriation of state funds.
He claimed that Ali bin Abi Talib should have succeeded the Prophet Muhammad as caliph.
41 Even though many governors appointed by Uthman were competent and had previously been trusted by Abu Bakr and Umar,42 the escalating political situation was exploited by Uthman's enemies to transform political criticism into a rebellion.
The tragic climax occurred when the rebels besieged Uthman's house and ultimately killed him while he was reading the Qur'an.
43 This event shattered the unity of the Muslim community and opened a new chapter of prolonged political division.
The Battle of Jamal as the First Sign of the Fragmentation of Unity The conflict following Uthman's assassination led to the first armed confrontation known as the Battle of Jamal.
Initially, this event was intended as a peace initiative, but it resulted in a tragic war due to provocation and misunderstandings.
44 After Ali bin Abi Talib became the fourth caliph.
Talhah bin Ubaidillah and Zubair bin Awwam, who had previously pledged allegiance to Ali, requested permission to perform Umrah in Mecca.
There, they met Aisha, who was also in Mecca after the Hajj.
This meeting resulted in an agreement to urge Ali to promptly investigate Uthman's assassination and to enforce qisaEs .
etributive justic.
against the perpetrators.
They viewed this as a religious obligation and a matter of justice that must be established before political stability could be achieved.
Consequently.
Aisha did not intend to go to war.
she merely wished to foster peace among the Muslims, believing that her departure would benefit them.
45 This underscores that their initial goal was reconciliation and the enforcement of justice, rather than a destructive military confrontation.
39 Arif.
AoTragedi Terbunuhnya Khalifah AoUtsman Ibn AoAffanAo.
40 Peerzada.
Similarity between the Life of St.
Paul and Abdullah Ibn Saba: Their Contribution and Influence on Christianity and Islam.
41 Nasution.
Identifikasi Tokoh Abdullah Bin SabaAo Dalam Literatur Sunni Dan SyiAoah.
42 Sefrianti et al.
AoUTSMAN BIN AFFANAo.
43 Arif.
AoTragedi Terbunuhnya Khalifah AoUtsman Ibn AoAffanAo.
44 M.
Kamruzzaman and Obeid.
AoBattle of Camel and Hermeneutics Reading of Orientalists & Muslim Commentators ViewsAo.
45 Selviana.
Syukur, and Rahmawati.
AoLatar Belakang Terjadinya Perang Jamal dan Perang Shiffin pada Masa Ali Bin Abi ThalibAo.
Satiadharmanto.
Safira, and Rahmiati.
AoKepemimpinan Ali Bin Abi Thalib dan Penerapan Tahkim dalam Penyelesaian KonflikAo.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Chronology and Context of the Battle of Siffn The Battle of Siffn occurred in the year 36 AH/657 CE and represented the climax of the prolonged political conflict between Ali bin Abi Talib and Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan.
Muawiyah pressed Ali to punish Uthman's murderers, while Ali argued that peace and stability should take precedence before legal proceedings commenced.
46 Both Ali and Muawiyah were reluctant to engage in this war.
they were compelled to do so due to pressure from their followers, who insisted on resolving the matter through violence.
According to Sheikh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah in his work Minhaajus Sunnah (II/.
,47 many involved in this war were not loyal followers of either leader but rather individuals motivated by personal ambition and group interests who exploited the fitnah to achieve their goals.
After sustaining numerous casualties on both sides, both parties agreed to raise the Qur'an on spears as a symbol of their legal dispute, leading to an arbitration process known as taukm.
The Taukm Event The taukm event took place in the year 37 AH/658 CE and marked the peak of the Siffn war crisis.
Both sides agreed to end the conflict through arbitration by raising the Qur'an as a symbol of peace 49.
The taukm agreement was implemented by appointing Abu Musa al-Ash'ari as the arbiter for Ali's side and 'Amr bin al-'Ash for Muawiyah's side.
50 According to reputable sources such as al-BidAyah wa al-NihAyah by Imam Ibn Kathir,51 the two arbiters met and concluded to defer the best decision to the Muslim community while respecting one another.
Their primary focus was to resolve the conflict peacefully and address the differences between Ali's demand for Muawiyah to pledge allegiance and Muawiyah's demand for Ali to exact retribution against Uthman's killers.
Reactions to the Taukm and the Emergence of the KhawArij The rejection of taukm led to the emergence of the KhawArij as an early form of sectarianism in Islam.
This group arose from the extreme reaction of some of Ali's followers who viewed the arbitration as a violation of Allah's law.
52 Initially, they supported Ali but later separated themselves with the principle 46 Selviana et al.
AoLatar Belakang Terjadinya Perang Jamal dan Perang Shiffin pada Masa Ali Bin Abi ThalibAo.
Shibeeb.
AoThe Battle of SiffinAo.
47 Ibn Taymiyyah.
AoA EIE EIEA- AAoE IIN EI EIOOA.
48 Nurazmallail Marni.
AoPeristiwa Tahkim antara Ali dan Muawiyah (Tahun 36 H): Suatu Kajian dan PengajaranAo.
Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineerin.
, 2003, 75yCAu92-75yCAu92, https://doi.
org/10.
11113/jt.
Satiadharmanto.
Safira, and Rahmiati.
AoKepemimpinan Ali Bin Abi Thalib dan Penerapan Tahkim dalam Penyelesaian KonflikAo.
49 ynnkal.
AoTahkim Olayi yuzerine Bir DeerlendirmeAo.
Satiadharmanto.
Safira, and Rahmiati.
AoKepemimpinan Ali Bin Abi Thalib dan Penerapan Tahkim dalam Penyelesaian KonflikAo.
50 Alamsyah.
AoMenilik historical peristiwa Tahkim pada masa Ali Bin Abi ThalibAo.
Sansarkan, slam dyynce geleneinde tahkim meselesi ve mezhebi ekoller yzerindeki etkisi.
51 Ibn Katsir.
AoA EIE EIEA- A EA- AAoE EO OEINOA.
52 Fawait et al.
AoSejarah Kemunculan Khawarij dan Pemahamannya tentang HadisAo.
Nugraha et al.
AoEksplorasi Sekte Khawarij Dan Impresinya Terhadap Ajaran IslamAo.
Deni Irawan.
Kasman.
Safrudin Edi Wibowo.
Miftah Arifin / Arbitration and the Emergence of Sectarianism: A Historical Examination of the Transition of Conflict from Politics to Theology of "lA uukma illA li-llAh" .
here is no rule except that of Alla.
, claiming that Ali had ruled by other than Allah's law.
They rejected political compromise and considered anyone involved in the taukm including Ali and Muawiyah as major sinners who must be fought.
53 The main characteristics of the KhawArij include a literal interpretation of religious texts without compromise, a rejection of authority that does not align with their understanding, and a tendency to use violence to enforce their religious views.
The Emergence of Shah from Supporters of Ali Some of the groups loyal to Ali bin Abi Talib after taukm subsequently evolved into Shah (Shah alAl.
Initially, this movement was political in nature, but over time, that political loyalty transformed into a theological conviction regarding the privileges of Ahl al-Bayt .
he family of the Prophe.
55 Shah emerged from the belief that Ali was the legitimate caliph after Prophet Muhammad SAW based on explicit texts and testament, and that leadership of the Muslim community should be inherited through the descendants of Ahl al-Bayt.
56 The early development of Shah was marked by the concept of imamah, which stated that an imam must be a descendant of Ali and Fatimah, possessing spiritual superiority, and entitled to lead the Muslim community based on divine appointment .
57 Excessive loyalty .
towards Ali and Ahl al-Bayt later became the theological foundation of Shah, emphasising that only the descendants of Ali possess the legitimate spiritual and political authority to lead the Muslim community.
58 This concept was subsequently codified during the era of Ja'far as-Sadiq through the doctrine of imamah that was inherited through generations.
The Influence of Taukm on Theological Discourse The taukm event catalyzed fundamental changes in Islamic theological discourse.
Debates shifted from practical political issues to deeper doctrinal beliefs, such as matters of faith, the status of major sinners, and takfr 60.
The polemics initiated by the KhawArij regarding the status of those who commit major sins spurred theological responses from other groups, including the early Murjiah, who adopted a moderate position by deferring judgment on an individual's faith until the Day of Resurrection 61.
This dynamic 53 Anggraheni et al.
AoFlashback of The Khawarij Stream in HistoryAo.
54 Putrawan and Eunike.
AoIslamic RadicalismAo.
55 Dewi et al.
AoShia Is One Of the Sects in IslamAo.
Zaheer.
Shias and Shiaism.
56 Badaruddin et al.
AoAhlul Bait Nabi NobleAos Characters as Inspiration in Educational ManagementAo.
57 Dewi.
Maulana, and Tasdoken.
AoShia Is One of the Sects in IslamAo.
58 Rahman and Hamat.
AoSorotan Sejarah Kemunculan Syiah Dan Aliran UtamanyaAo.
59 Zaheer.
Shias and Shiaism.
60 Dewi.
Maulana, and Tasdoken.
AoShia Is One of the Sects in IslamAo.
Nurseri Hasnah Nasution.
AoIslamic Theological Thought in Indonesia and Its Implications for Education: Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Comparative StudyAo.
Conciencia 21, no.
June 2.
: 69Ae85, https://doi.
org/10.
19109/conciencia.
61 Prayogi.
AoThe Theologicalism and Fiqhism in Islam a Descriptive StudyAo.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam subsequently led to the emergence of new theological schools such as Qadariyyah, which emphasised human free will in determining their actions, while Jabariyyah asserted that everything is determined by God, hence humans do not possess power over their own fate.
62 Furthermore, the Mutazilah emerged, developing the concept of "manzilah bayn al-manzilatayn" .
position between two position.
for individuals who commit major sins.
63 By the end of the 3rd century AH, theological schools such as Ashariyah and Maturidiyah emerged, representing a synthesis between rational and traditional 64 This transformation illustrates a shift from a purely political focus to systematic theological debates, laying the groundwork for the development of kalam science as a structured discipline of Islamic theology.
The Map of Ideological Fragmentation of the Muslim Community Post-Taukm Following taukm, the ideologies of the Muslim community experienced complex and diverse fragmentation, shaping a map of sectarianism that persists to this day with various changes.
65 This fragmentation resulted in three main groups: KhawArij.
Shah, and Murjiah.
66 Additionally, various other theological schools emerged, such as Mutazilah.
Qadariyyah.
Jabariyyah, as well as Ashariyah and Maturidiyah.
The long-term impact of taukm is evident in the formation of sectarian identities encompassing theological, political, social, and cultural aspects.
Each group developed distinct religious thought, systems of authority, and interpretations of Islamic sources.
67 This fragmentation created competition in claims of legitimacy and religious authority, with each group striving to present itself as the bearer of true Islamic truth.
68 The consequences of ideological fragmentation following taukm have not only resulted in a diversity of thought within Islam but have also become a source of tension and conflict that continues to influence the political and social dynamics in the Muslim world to this day.
This is evident in various contemporary conflicts that exploit sectarian identities for political and social 62 Ronny Mahmuddin and Syandri Syandri.
AoQadariyah.
Jabariyah Dan Ahlus Sunnah (Studi Komparatif Merespon Kebijakan Pemerintah Dan Ulama Mencegah Merebaknya Covid-.
Ao.
BUSTANUL FUQAHA: Jurnal Bidang Hukum Islam 1, no.
May 2.
: 209Ae22, https://doi.
org/10.
36701/bustanul.
Supriadin.
Abubakar, and Arsyad.
AoDiskursus Teologi Qadariayah dan JabariahAo.
63 Nasution.
AoIslamic Theological Thought in Indonesia and its Implications for EducationAo.
64 Adnin Adnin and Muhammad Zein.
AoEpistemologi Kalam AsyAoariyah Dan Al-MaturidiyahAo.
Al-Hikmah: Jurnal Theosofi Dan Peradaban Islam 2, no.
March 2.
, https://doi.
org/10.
51900/alhikmah.
Ahmad Shofi Muhyiddin.
AoPemikiran Teologi Maturidiyyah (Pendekatan Sejara.
Ao.
JASNA: Journal for Aswaja Studies 2, no.
July 2.
: 13Ae30, https://doi.
org/10.
34001/jasna.
65 Abdulmajid.
AoIslam and SectarianismAo.
Rahmadhani.
AoAl-Fitnah Al-Kubra Roots Sectarianism In IslamAo.
66 Miftahur Ridho.
AoPeristiwa Tahkim (Polemik Perselisihan Politik Dan Implikasiny.
Ao.
HUMANISTIKA: Jurnal Keislaman 5, no.
March 2.
: 57Ae71, https://doi.
org/10.
36835/humanistika.
67 Abdulmajid.
AoIslam and SectarianismAo.
68 Geaves.
Chapter 1 Sectarianism in Sunn Islam.
69 Abdulmajid.
AoIslam and SectarianismAo.
Wehrey.
Beyond Sunni and Shia.
Deni Irawan.
Kasman.
Safrudin Edi Wibowo.
Miftah Arifin / Arbitration and the Emergence of Sectarianism: A Historical Examination of the Transition of Conflict from Politics to Theology Transformation of Post-Arbitration Conflict Stage Stage 1: Pure Political Conflict .
656 AD) Stage 2:
Leadership Conflict .
657 CE) Stage 3:
Arbitration and Division .
CE) Stage 4:
Ideological Fragmentation .
-661 CE) Stage 5:
Theologisatio n .
-750 AD) Characteristics of Conflict Succession of leadership and Legitimacy of the Caliphate and the Demand for Justice Main Actors Central Issues Impact Nepotism, corruption, and Assassination of Uthman, legitimacy crisis Legal interpretation and arbitration Uthman vs.
Rebels of Egypt/Kufa/Basr Ali vs Aisha/Thalhah/ Zubair vs Muawiyah Ali & Abu Musa vs Muawiyah & Amr bin Ash Retribution for the Murder of Uthman.
Legitimacy of Allegiance The authority of God's law vs that of man Formation of Group Identity and Doctrine KhawArij vs Shah vs Murjiah Takfr.
ImAmah.
Status of Major Sinners The Battles of Jamal and Siffn.
Fragmentation of the Community The emergence of the KhawArij, rejection of Emergence of PoliticalTheological Sects Systematisation of theology and the formation of schools of thought Qadariyyah vs Jabariyyah vs Mutazilah vs Ash'ariyah Free will vs attributes of God Diversification of schools and Arbitration as a Turning Point in the Transition from Political Conflict to Theological Conflict The event of arbitration is not merely a method for resolving political disputes, but also transforms leadership conflicts into profound and enduring theological divisions within Islam.
Through arbitration, the legitimacy of leadership is determined not only by political consensus .
jma') or military strength but also by diverse interpretations of religious texts and claims of divine authority.
70 The arbitration process, which elevates the Qur'an as a symbol, has shifted the debate from practical politics to religious Each group begins to construct legitimacy through exclusive doctrinal interpretations.
This dynamic results in sectarian ideologies that far exceed the initial objectives of arbitration.
Consequently, the groups that emerge post-arbitration compete not only for political power but also claim theological truth and religious authority 72.
Thus, arbitration becomes a significant moment that transforms conflicts among elites into divisions involving beliefs, identities, and spiritual authority, which persist to this day.
70 Nasution.
AoIslamic Theological Thought in Indonesia and its Implications for EducationAo.
71 Geaves.
Chapter 1 Sectarianism in Sunn Islam.
72 Ridho.
AoPeristiwa Tahkim (Polemik Perselisihan Politik Dan Implikasiny.
Ao.
Satiadharmanto.
Safira, and Rahmiati.
AoKepemimpinan Ali Bin Abi Thalib dan Penerapan Tahkim dalam Penyelesaian KonflikAo.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam The Role of Provocation and the Politicisation of Religion in Aggravating Situations Following the arbitration, the politicisation of religion demonstrates how political actors utilise religious symbols and narratives to support their political interests.
Religion, which should serve as a spiritual guide, transforms into a tool for mass mobilisation and justification of power.
An example of the politicisation of revelation is evident when various parties select verses from the Qur'an and Hadith to endorse their political positions.
For instance, the KhawArij employ the principle "lA uukma illA li-llAh" to reject arbitration, while the Shah claim the privileges of the Ahl al-Bayt.
73 This strategy creates "instrumentalisation of religion," where Islam is used as a means to achieve specific political ends, rather than as a value system governing spiritual and social life comprehensively.
When political elites exploit religious sentiments to enhance their legitimacy, it can undermine genuine religious authority.
Society begins to question the motives behind the religious interpretations presented.
74 In the context of arbitration, the politicisation of religion illustrates that the use of religious symbols in political conflicts can prolong and exacerbate divisions.
Conflicts that were initially transient evolve into existential conflicts concerning identity and fundamental beliefs.
The Contribution of Arbitration to the Emergence of Fragmented Religious Epistemology Post-arbitration, various groups begin to establish separate and competing religious epistemic This leads to the emergence of a plurality of standards of truth and different methodologies of interpretation in understanding Islam.
75 The KhawArij develop a literal and exclusive epistemology, rejecting compromise and claiming the sovereignty of God's law.
Meanwhile, the Shah develop a nah epistemology that emphasises the authority of the Ahl al-Bayt in religious interpretation.
76 Subsequently, the Murjiah.
Qadariyyah, and Jabariyyah groups emerge with differing epistemological approaches, each claiming that their methodology is the most valid in understanding divine will.
77 This epistemological fragmentation creates a "competition for religious authority," where each group strives to be the holder of the most authentic interpretation of Islam through the development of texts, traditions, and exclusive hermeneutical methodologies 78.
As a result.
Muslims no longer possess a single, central source of religious authority but instead face various competing interpretations.
This creates a fragmented theological landscape that is often contradictory.
73 Echele.
AoWeaponization of ReligionAo.
74 Williamson et al.
AoPreaching PoliticsAo.
75 Bhojani and Clarke.
AoReligious Authority beyond Domination and Discipline: Epistemic Authority and Its Vernacular Uses in the Shi Aoi DiasporaAo.
76 Ibid.
77 Ibid.
78 Cheong et al.
AoReligious Communication and Epistemic Authority of Leaders in Wired Faith OrganizationsAo.
Deni Irawan.
Kasman.
Safrudin Edi Wibowo.
Miftah Arifin / Arbitration and the Emergence of Sectarianism: A Historical Examination of the Transition of Conflict from Politics to Theology Chronological Timeline Reflection and Lessons for Contemporary Muslims The event of arbitration offers important lessons for Muslims regarding the significance of objectivity in history, the avoidance of detrimental politicisation of religion, and the enforcement of reconciliation principles based on justice .
l-'ad.
and objectivity .
l-insA.
in understanding the legacy of the Previous research indicates that Muslim communities capable of resisting sectarianism are those that build social capital among groups, create adaptive conflict resolution methods, and reject the exploitation of religious sentiments for political ends.
Muslims need to apply principles of peace such as ulu .
, taukm .
, and 'afw .
in resolving differences, while avoiding the traps of takfr .
xcommunication from Isla.
and exclusionism that have divided the community throughout history.
79 It is essential to instill the belief that all companions are exemplary figures .
l-auAbah kulluhum 'udu.
, including Ali.
Muawiyah.
Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, and 'Amr bin al'Ash, who sought the best solutions even though the outcomes were not always satisfactory.
By studying the history of arbitration objectively and avoiding sectarian bias.
Muslims can build a unifying narrative, thereby addressing the challenges of division today through constructive dialogue, mutual understanding, and a commitment to authentic Islamic values.
79 Sabban.
AoContemporary Conflict Resolution and Islamic Conflict ResolutionAo.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Conclusion The event of arbitration in the year 37 AH/657 CE represents a significant moment in Islamic history that transformed a political conflict into a profound theological schism.
The attempt at arbitration to resolve the dispute between Ali bin Abi Talib and Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan inadvertently catalysed the emergence of various sects, such as the KhawArij, who espoused extreme takfr doctrines, the Shah, with their concept of imAmah, as well as the Murjiah and other theological movements.
Arbitration was not merely a means of conflict resolution.
it also marked the beginning of the fragmentation of Islamic thought, wherein each group began to establish separate and competing religious authorities.
Therefore.
Muslims need to approach this history with objectivity, applying the principles of al-'adl .
and alinsAf .
in understanding the disputes among the companions, while maintaining the belief that the companions serve as exemplars who endeavoured to find the best solutions in complex situations.
This understanding is crucial to avoiding sectarianism and fostering a narrative that unites the community against division.
References