1
Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology 10(3) (2025) 419-426

Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology
Journal homepage: http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/ijost/

Innovative Nanofluid Encapsulation in Solar Stills:
Boosting Water Yield and Efficiency under Extreme
Climate Supporting Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs)
Tedjani Yahia Namoussa1,*, Leila Boucerredj2, Abderrahmane Khechekhouche1, Imad Kemerchou3, Nadjet Zair1,
Mehdi Jahangiri4, Abdelmonem Miloudi1, Antonio Siqueira5
1

University of El Oued, El Oued, Algeria
University of Guelma, Guelma, Algeria
3
University of Ouargla, Ouargla, Algeria
4
ShK.C., Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
5
University of Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil
*
Correspondence: E-mail: namoussa-tedjaniyahya@univ-eloued.dz
2

ABSTRACT
Water scarcity in extreme climates presents a global
challenge directly linked to Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), particularly SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation). This
study introduces an innovative solar still design using
nanofluid encapsulation to enhance freshwater production
because conventional systems often struggle with limited
efficiency. The modified solar still employed sealed glass
tubes containing CuO nanofluid, improving solar energy
absorption and heat retention because the nanofluid could
enhance thermal conductivity. The system maintained
higher operational temperatures, leading to increased
evaporation and freshwater yield. The encapsulation
prevented nanoparticle contamination, ensuring water
safety and long-term system stability. This approach
demonstrates significant potential to support sustainable
freshwater solutions aligned with global SDG targets under
harsh environmental conditions.
© 2025 Tim Pengembang Jurnal UPI

ARTICLE INFO
Article History:
Submitted/Received 26 Mar 2025
First Revised 30 Apr 2025
Accepted 03 Jun 2025
First Available Online 04 Jun 2025
Publication Date 01 Dec 2025

____________________
Keyword:
Accumulated yield,
Efficiency,
Freshwater productivity,
Thermal performance,
Water temperature.

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1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, addressing water scarcity has become a global priority closely linked to the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 6, which targets
universal access to clean water and sanitation. In many arid and semi-arid regions, such as
southeastern Algeria, groundwater frequently contains high salinity and mineral
concentrations that exceed World Health Organization (WHO) standards, creating a critical
challenge for clean drinking water access. Conventional water purification technologies often
face economic, environmental, and energy-related limitations. Solar distillation has emerged
as a promising, eco-friendly, and cost-effective technique for water purification because it
sustainably utilizes abundant solar energy to produce potable water, even from industrial
wastewater. However, its relatively low productivity remains a barrier to large-scale
application, limiting widespread adoption. Therefore, extensive research has focused on
improving the efficiency of solar stills through design innovations, material enhancements,
and thermal optimization strategies to support progress toward SDG 6, as well as related goals
such as SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). Numerous studies
have explored modifications to solar still geometry and construction to enhance
performance. For instance, thinner glass covers (3 mm) have proven more effective than
thicker ones (5 or 6 mm), yielding higher productivity and energy efficiency [1]. Seasonal
optimization of glass tilt angles between 20° and 30° has also shown performance
improvements [2], while the use of double glazing (despite its success in other solar
applications) resulted in significant productivity losses of up to 88.63% due to inhibited heat
transfer [3-5].
Material-based interventions have also been widely studied. Incorporating locally available
or recycled metallic or plant-based materials such as black zinc plates [6], palm fibers as the
region has a large number of bearings [7, 8], aluminum waste from workshops [9], charcoal
from waste burned by farmers [10], industrial coal debris [11], and palm stems have led to
significant productivity gains, ranging from 8% to over 53% [12]. The same goes for rubber,
Cladium mariscus, which is very abundant in the Sahara of the El Oued region, and the same
goes for date kernels and Cellulose cardboard, which have been selected for their conductivity
or high thermal absorption capacity, improve heat retention, and prolong the evaporation
process [13-15].
Environmental and operational parameters also significantly affect solar still performance.
Enhancements such as the addition of reflectors (mirrors) increased productivity by up to 45%
[16], while optimized water depths (e.g., 1 cm) and thermal insulation strategies reduced
basin losses and accelerated evaporation. Structural improvements like coupling the system
with a heat storage tank enabled night time operation, boosting daily output by 27.7% and
maintaining stable thermal efficiency in the absence of sunlight [17].
Other approaches have evaluated the use of natural materials such as local sand from El
Oued and Illizi, with mixed results, ranging from decreased productivity to marginal
improvements [18]. However, some materials have proven counterproductive: for example,
plastic fins reduced system efficiency by nearly 9%, even absorbent multilayer composite
materials [19, 20]. Another factor that reduces output is when solar radiation is low in the
winter months [3, 19].
In terms of structural advancements, significant improvements in heat and mass transfer
have been achieved using double-finned absorbers, solar concentrators, and alternative
geometries such as conical, pyramidal, and tubular shapes, especially those with rotating
absorbers, external reflectors, or pulsating heat pipes [21-24]. The condenser cooling system,
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i.e., the glass cover, is a very effective method and has been used by several researchers [11].
Wick-type systems using materials like jute, particularly in rotating, inclined, or multicondensing configurations, have demonstrated marked productivity gains and higher exergy
efficiency, with improvements reaching up to 163% [25, 26].
A more recent and promising direction involves hybrid and material-based enhancements.
Phase change materials (PCMs), when integrated into solar stills, have been shown to increase
energy storage and thermal efficiency in both freshwater production and wastewater
treatment contexts [27-29].
Finally, the integration of nanomaterials has introduced a transformative dimension to
solar still design. The use of nanoparticles such as coal and graphene (either suspended in
phase change matrices or stored in copper cylinders) has significantly improved thermal
conductivity, leading to substantial enhancements in desalination efficiency [30]. Synergistic
systems combining nanoparticles, PCMs, and nanocoatings have demonstrated exceptional
gains, with reported productivity increases reaching up to 318% [31, 32]. These nanoenhanced configurations represent a cutting-edge approach to overcoming the performance
limitations of conventional solar stills and offer a promising route toward high-efficiency,
scalable water purification solutions.
This study examines the impact of a copper oxide (CuO) nanofluid, contained in
strategically placed glass tubes, on the freshwater yield of a solar still. The main objective is
to evaluate the effect of this specific nanofluid configuration on the distiller's efficiency.
Innovations in this approach include the encapsulation of the CuO nanofluid in sealed glass
tubes, thus preventing direct contamination of the pond water and ensuring the lasting effect
of the nanomaterial throughout the distillation process. Furthermore, the organized
arrangement of these nanofluid-filled tubes in the solar still basin represents another
innovative aspect of this work, designed to maximize solar energy absorption and heat
transfer to improve overall distillation efficiency. This method offers a distinct advantage by
confining the nanofluid, thus mitigating potential losses and maintaining its concentration for
prolonged performance improvement.
2. METHODS
2.1. Setup Experience
Figure 1. Figure 1 shows the experimental setup, consisting of two identical single-basin
solar stills arranged side by side. Each is a rectangular enclosure with a transparent glass lid
tilted to allow condensation and collection of distilled water. Inside each still, a series of glass
tubes is visible, arranged in parallel and organized within the basin. We experimented on 23
March 2024, using these two solar stills of similar size and construction. The first, labeled
"SSM" (modified solar still), was equipped with 15 glass tubes. These tubes were filled with
an aqueous suspension containing 0.23% copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles, which appears as
a clear yellow-green liquid inside the tubes. The second still, labeled "CSS" (conventional solar
still), served as a control. It was also equipped with 15 identical glass tubes, but these tubes
were filled with pure, clear water, as shown in the inset at top left.
We verified that the glass tubes used in both stills were identical in terms of dimensions
and material. This careful control allowed us to isolate the effect of the copper oxide
nanoparticles present in the tubes, the only variable influencing the stills' performance. These
solar stills were placed outdoors, in full sunlight, on a clear, windless day in Guemar, El Oued
Province, Algeria. We began the experiment at 6:00 a.m. and continued until 4:00 p.m.,
recording measurements every hour. These measurements included the temperature of the
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interior and exterior surfaces of the glass lid, the temperature of the water in each still's basin,
and the cumulative amount of distilled water produced and collected in each still.

Figure 1. Experiment setup.
2.2. Energy Balance
The mathematical modeling of a single-slope solar still illustrates the various heat
exchanges that occur in a solar still. It is based on four key points: glazing balance (energy
interaction with the glass), water balance (energy changes in the water), insulation balance
(heat management at the base), and condensate flow (freshwater production rate).
Understanding these balances is essential for optimizing the design and operation of solar
stills. It helps identify energy losses, determine the impact of design changes, and maximize
freshwater production, thus improving the efficiency of solar stills as a viable solution for
freshwater production, especially in regions where water is scarce. The equations are then
delivered using symbols shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Nomenclature.
Symbol
Ab
Cpb
Cpg
Cpi
Cpw
G
G
L
𝑚̇𝑒𝑤
Mb
Mg
Mi
Mw
Qc,b−i
Qc,b−w
Qc,g−a
Qc,ge−gi
Qc,i−a

Description
Surface area of the basin
Specific heat of the bottom
Specific heat of the glass
Specific heat of the insulation
Specific heat of the water
Solar radiation
Solar radiation
Latent heat of vaporization of water
Mass of water evaporated
Mass of the bottom
Mass of the glass
Mass of the insulation
Mass of the water
Convective heat flow between the tank and the thermal insulation
Convective heat flow between the bottom of the distiller and the water film
Convective heat flow between the glass and the ambient
Heat flows by conduction through the glass
Convective heat flow between the insulation and the ambient

Unit
m²
J/(kg·K)
J/(kg·K)
J/(kg·K)
J/(kg·K)
W/m²
W/m²
J/kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
W/m²
W/m²
W/m²
W
W/m²

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Table 1 (Continue). Nomenclature.
Symbol
Qc,w−gi
Qevap
Qr,g−a
Qr,i−a
Qr,w−gi
t
Tb
Tge
Tgi
Ti
Tw
αb
αg
αi
αw
τg
τw

Description
Convective heat flow between the water film and the glazing
Evaporative-condensation heat flux between the water film and the glazing
Thermal radiation flux between the glass and the ambient
Radiative heat flow between the insulation and the ambient
Thermal radiation flux between the water film and the glazing
Time
Temperature of the bottom
Temperature of the glass (outside)
Temperature of the glass (inside)
Temperature of the insulation
Temperature of the water
Absorptivity of the bottom
Absorptivity of the glass
Absorptivity of the insulation
Absorptivity of the water
Transmissivity of the glass
Transmissivity of the water

Unit
W/m²
W/m²
W/m²
W/m²
W/m²
s
K
K
K
K
K
dimensionless
dimensionless
dimensionless
dimensionless
dimensionless
dimensionless

All of these balances are known and used in this field [33].
(i)
On the outside: The quantity of heat received by the glass is evacuated by the
conductivity through the system (Equation (1) dan (2)):
Mg Cpg dTge
Ag

(ii)

dt

= αg G + Q c.ge_gi -Qr.g.w_a - Q c.g._a

(1)

On the inside: The explanation is shown in Equation (2):
𝑀𝑔 𝐶𝑝𝑔 𝑑𝑇𝑔𝑖
𝐴𝑔

𝑑𝑡

= 𝑄𝑟.𝑤_𝑔𝑖 + 𝑄𝑐.𝑤_𝑔𝑖 + 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 − 𝑄𝑐.𝑔𝑖_𝑔𝑒

(2)

2.2.1. Water Balance
Figure 1 shows the exchange of heat between the body of water and the inside of the glass;
the same amounts of heat are found by convection, radiation, and evaporation, respectively
(Equation (3)).
𝑀𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑑𝑇𝑤
𝐴𝑤

𝑑𝑡

= 𝛼𝑤 𝜏𝑔 𝐺 + 𝑄𝑐.𝑏._𝑤 − 𝑄𝑐.𝑤._𝑔 − 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 − 𝑄𝑟.𝑤._𝑔.𝑖

(3)

2.2.2. Bottom Balance Sheet (The Absorber)
The bottom balance is represented by Equation (4):
𝑀𝑏 𝐶𝑝𝑏 𝑑𝑇𝑏
𝐴𝑏

𝑑𝑡

= 𝛼𝑏 𝜏𝑔 𝜏𝑤 𝐺 − 𝑄𝑐.𝑏_𝑤 − 𝑄𝑐.𝑏_𝑖

(4)

2.2.3. Balance Sheet Insulation
We use thermal insulation to reduce heat loss from the solar distiller, to show the energy
balance of insulation. Equation (5) represents this balance:
𝑀𝑖 𝐶𝑝𝑖 𝑑𝑇𝑖
𝐴𝑖

𝑑𝑡

= 𝛼𝑖 𝜏𝑔 𝜏𝑤 𝜏𝑏 𝐺 + 𝑄𝑐.𝑏_𝑖 − 𝑄𝑐.𝑖_𝑎 − 𝑄𝑟.𝑖_𝑎

(5)

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2.2.4. Thermal Efficiency Equation
The thermal efficiency (ηth) of the solar still can be calculated as (Equation (6)):
∑ 𝑚̇

𝐿

𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∑ 𝐼(𝑡)𝐴 𝑒𝑤
× 100
× 3600

(6)

𝑏

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Solar Radiation and Ambient Temperature
Figure 2 illustrates the hourly variation of solar radiation (in W/m²) and ambient
temperature (in °C) during the experimental period from 6:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. on 23 March
2023, in Guemar, El Oued Province, Algeria. Solar radiation is a very important factor in solar
distillation. It is represented by the black line, starting weakly in the morning, increasing
continuously until its peak of about 1,000 W/m² around 1:00 p.m., and then decreasing
throughout the afternoon. The ambient temperature, represented by the red line, followed a
similar evolution, but peaked a little later, reaching about 33°C between 3:00 p.m. and 4:00
p.m., when solar radiation had already begun to decline. These variations in solar energy and
air temperature are important in understanding how the solar still worked that day, because
sunlight fueled the process and the ambient temperature affected the amount of heat lost
from the still.

Figure 2. Radiation and ambient temperature.
3.2. Exterior Glass Temperature
Figure 3 illustrates the hourly variation in the outer glass temperature (°C) of the
conventional solar still (CSS, black line with square marks) and the modified solar still (MSS,
red line with circular marks) during the experimental period. Starting at approximately 14°C
for the MSS and 13°C for the CSS at 6:00 a.m., the outer glass temperature of both stills
gradually increased throughout the morning. By 11:00 a.m., the MSS reached approximately
39°C, while the CSS was approximately 36°C. Maximum temperatures were observed in the
early afternoon, with the MSS reaching a maximum of approximately 45°C around 1:00 p.m.
and the CSS slightly earlier, around 44°C around noon Notably, from about 10:00 a.m., the
exterior glass temperature of the modified solar still (MSS) remained consistently 1-3°C higher
than that of the CSS throughout the afternoon. With the decrease in solar radiation in the late
afternoon, both temperatures decreased, reaching about 34°C for the MSS and 32°C for the
CSS by 6:00 p.m. This consistently higher temperature in the MSS, especially during peak solar
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hours, suggests that the modifications improve heat absorption and retention, leading to a
warmer exterior glass surface than that of the control CSS. The overall temperature profiles
reflect the influence of incident solar radiation and the improved heat transfer dynamics
within the MSS.

Figure 3. Outer glass temperature.
3.3. Interior Glass Temperature
Figure 4 illustrates the hourly variation of the inner glass temperature (°C) for both the
conventional solar still during the experimental period. Starting at approximately 14°C for the
MSS and 13.5°C for the CSS at 6:00 a.m., the inner glass temperature of both stills gradually
increased throughout the morning. By 11:00 a.m., the MSS reached approximately 45°C, while
the CSS was around 46°C. Maximum temperatures were observed in the mid-afternoon, with
the MSS reaching a maximum of approximately 52°C around 3:00 p.m. and the CSS peaking
slightly earlier at around 49°C around 2:00 p.m. Notably, from about 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.,
the inner glass temperature of the MSS generally remained 1 to 3°C higher than that of the
CSS, with a more significant difference observed during the peak solar radiation hours in the
afternoon. With the decrease in solar radiation in the late afternoon, both temperatures
decreased, reaching about 44°C for the MSS and 42°C for the CSS by 6:00 p.m. This
consistently higher inner glass temperature in the MSS during the majority of the day suggests
that the modifications are effectively trapping more heat inside the still, leading to a warmer
inner glass surface compared to the control CSS. The overall temperature profiles reflect the
influence of incident solar radiation and the improved heat retention capabilities within the
MSS.
3.4. Pond Water Temperature
Figure 5 illustrates the hourly variation of water temperature in a CSS without nanofluid
and a MSS with nanofluid from 6:00 to 18:00 hours, showing that both experience a
temperature increase due to solar radiation, with the most rapid rise between 8:00 a.m. and
noon, followed by a slower increase likely due to heat loss. Notably, the MSS consistently
maintained a higher water temperature throughout the day, starting at around 16°C
compared to the CSS at 17°C, reaching peak temperatures of approximately 73°C for the MSS
and 65°C for the CSS around 2:00 p.m., and remaining significantly warmer in the late
afternoon at 51°C for the MSS versus 47°C for the CSS. This sustained higher temperature in
the MSS indicates that the modifications, likely the use of nanofluids, enhance solar energy
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absorption and heat transfer to the water, leading to more efficient heating compared to the
conventional still, particularly during peak sunlight hours.

Figure 4. Inner glass temperature.

Figure 5. Water temperature variation.
3.5. Hourly Productivity
Figure 6 presents a bar chart illustrating the hourly flow rate (in mL) of freshwater
produced by the conventional solar still (CSS, black bars) and the modified solar still (MSS, red
bars). As illustrated, both stills exhibit minimal freshwater production in the early morning
hours, with production beginning to increase significantly around 10:00 a.m., coinciding with
the increase in solar radiation. The MSS consistently exhibits a higher hourly flow rate than
the CSS throughout most of the day, particularly during the period of peak solar intensity,
from early to mid-afternoon. The most significant difference in flow rate between the two
stills is observed between 1:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m., where the MSS exhibits significantly higher
freshwater production, reaching a maximum flow rate of approximately 205 mL around 3:00
p.m., while the CSS peaks at approximately 120 mL around 2:00 p.m. This increased
productivity of the MSS can be attributed to modifications made, including the incorporation
of nanofluids that improve heat absorption and water evaporation. Even in the late
afternoon, when solar radiation decreases, the MSS continues to produce a higher quantity
of distilled water than the CSS. The cumulative effect of these hourly differences underlines
the increased efficiency of the modified solar still in converting solar energy into fresh water
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compared to the conventional design, under the same environmental conditions in Guemar,
El Oued Province, Algeria.

Figure 6. Hourly flow rate.
3.6. Accumulated Productivity
Figure 7 presents the cumulative productivity (in mL) of freshwater for the CSS and the
MSS over the experimental period from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. As expected, the cumulative
production of both stills starts at zero in the early morning and gradually increases throughout
the day. However, the MSS consistently exhibits a higher cumulative freshwater production
rate than the CSS starting around 11 a.m. The gap in cumulative production becomes
increasingly significant during the solar peak hours and continues into the late afternoon,
highlighting the overall improved efficiency of the modified design. By the end of the
experimental period at 6 p.m., the MSS achieves a significantly higher total cumulative
freshwater production, reaching approximately 1,050 mL, while the CSS produces a total of
approximately 630 mL. This represents an improvement of approximately 66.67% in the
cumulative productivity of the MSS compared to the CSS during the experimental day. This
substantial difference in cumulative production underlines the positive impact of the
modifications made to the MSS, probably the use of nanofluids, by significantly comparing
the total freshwater yield to that of the traditional solar still under the same environmental
conditions in Guemar, El Oued province, Algeria, on 23 March 2023. The steeper slope of the
MSS curve during most of the day visually represents its higher productivity over time.
3.7. Thermal Efficiency
Figure 8 illustrates the hourly variation in efficiency (%) for both solar stills. Both stills
exhibit minimum efficiency in the early morning hours, with efficiency beginning to increase
significantly around 10:00 AM. The MSS consistently demonstrates higher hourly efficiency
than the CSS throughout most of the day, especially during the period of maximum solar
intensity. The peak efficiency achieved by the MSS is approximately 57% around 3:00 p.m.,
while the peak efficiency of the CSS is approximately 32% around 2:00 p.m. The most
significant difference in efficiency between the two stills is observed between 1:00 p.m. and
4:00 p.m. To quantify the improvement at the time of peak efficiency of the MSS, the
improvement rate over the CSS is approximately 90%. Even at 6:00 p.m., the efficiency of the
MSS (approximately 44%) remains significantly higher than that of the CSS (approximately
21%). Based on a visual estimate, the average efficiency over the experimental period is
approximately 30–35% for MSS and 15–20% for CSS, suggesting an improvement of
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approximately 85.7% in average efficiency due to the use of nanofluids in the modified still.
This consistently higher efficiency and the overall MSS average indicate that the implemented
modifications are more efficient in converting solar energy into freshwater production
throughout the day, resulting in a significant performance improvement compared to the
conventional design. The overall efficiency trends reflect the improved performance of the
modified solar still in utilizing solar radiation for water distillation due to the inclusion of
nanofluids.

Figure 7. Cumulative productivity.

Figure 8. Thermal efficiency.
3.8. SDGs Contribution
The findings of this study directly contribute to the achievement of the United Nations
SDGs, particularly SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), which emphasizes the importance of
ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water for all. By enhancing the
efficiency of solar stills through innovative nanofluid encapsulation, this research offers a
sustainable solution for freshwater production in extreme climates where water scarcity is a
major concern. The system utilizes abundant solar energy, promoting clean and renewable
energy usage, thereby supporting SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy). Additionally, by
providing a low-cost, environmentally friendly, and scalable technology for decentralized
water purification, the study indirectly contributes to SDG 13 (Climate Action) by reducing
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reliance on fossil-fuel-based desalination methods. The integration of nanotechnology within
a safe encapsulation framework ensures both environmental safety and long-term
operational stability, aligning with the broader goals of sustainable development. This adds
new information regarding SDGs as reported elsewhere [34-43].
4. CONCLUSION
The experimental results demonstrate the significant enhancement in freshwater
productivity and efficiency achieved by the MSS compared to the CSS. The incorporation of
modifications, likely involving nanofluids, led to consistently higher outer and inner glass
temperatures, indicating improved solar energy absorption and heat retention within the
MSS. Consequently, the water temperature in the MSS reached a peak of approximately 73°C,
notably higher than the 65°C peak observed in the CSS. This resulted in a substantially greater
accumulated freshwater yield of around 1050 mL for the MSS by the end of the day,
representing an approximate 66.67% improvement over the CSS, which produced about 630
mL. Furthermore, the peak energy conversion efficiency of the MSS reached approximately
57%, significantly outperforming the CSS peak efficiency of around 32%, with an estimated
average efficiency improvement of about 85.7%. These findings underscore the effectiveness
of the implemented modifications in the MSS for enhancing solar distillation performance
under the specific environmental conditions of the study.
5. AUTHORS’ NOTE
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this
article. The authors confirmed that the paper was free of plagiarism.
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