Vol.
No.
Desember 2025: 325Ae339 https://doi.
org/10.
22146/kawistara.
https://jurnal.
id/kawistara/index ISSN 2088-5415 (Prin.
| ISSN 2355-5777 (Onlin.
Submitted: 01-03-2025.
Revised: 28-12-2025.
Accepted:02-01-2026 The Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities How Criminalization of Blasphemy on Social Media Intensifies Social Division:
A Critical Criminology Perspective Fany Nur Rahmadiana Hakim1* Untung Sumarwan2 Universitas Budi Luhur *Corresponding author: fany.
hakim@budiluhur.
ABSTRACT Existing studies on IndonesiaAos blasphemy law have primarily focused on its constitutional foundations and judicial interpretation, particularly through analyses of decisions by the Constitutional Court.
This study examines the intricate dynamics of blasphemy laws in Indonesia, with a particular focus on their implications in the digital era.
Building on this body of work, including Melisa CrouchAos influential study on law and religion in Indonesia, this article shifts attention to the practical criminalization of blasphemy in the context of social media.
While these laws aim to protect religion and religious values, they often result in the criminalization of certain expressions, particularly in virtual spaces.
This research scrutinizes the intersection between blasphemy laws and the Electronic Information and Transactions Law, highlighting the tensions between freedom of expression, the right to practice religion and belief, and the role of technology in modern legal frameworks.
The primary analysis adopts a critical criminological perspective, suggesting that those in power can legislate and criminalize anyone.
This study examines the impact of public perceptions on legal processes in blasphemy cases.
Data collection techniques include searching and sorting related news articles and legal text documents.
Thematic analysis is employed to uncover patterns and dynamics of power embedded in the narratives.
The findings indicate how these legal tools exacerbate societal divisions and contribute to the escalation of inter-religious tensions, especially in the context of online content, reflecting broader sociopolitical dynamics and moral judgments.
The research results underscore the need for a more nuanced understanding of blasphemy law and a critical re-evaluation of its application, taking into account both legal and philosophical perspectives.
The media plays an important role in shaping narratives and influencing judicial outcomes, emphasizing the intersection of law, media, and society in the context of blasphemy allegations.
KEYWORDS Blasphemy Law.
Criminalization.
Social Media.
Critical Criminology.
INTRODUCTION
The IndonesiaAos Their coexistence in practice is blasphemy law reveals persistent tensions often shaped by political influence and between freedom of expression and freedom religious sensitivities (Graham, 2009, p.
of religion or belief, particularly in cases In Indonesia, these tensions become involving public and digital expression.
especially visible in blasphemy cases, where Although both rights are recognized under expressions incorporating religious ideas or international human rights law, including symbolsAifrequently disseminated through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights social mediaAimay result in criminalization as articulated by the Office of the United following objections from offended groups Nations High Commissioner for Human (Hicks, 2015, p.
This creates a conflict Rights (OHCHR) (UN General Assembly, between freedom of speech, which protects CopyrightA 2025 Fany Nur Rahmadiana Hakim.
Untung Sumarwan.
This article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.
0 International license.
Jurnal Kawistara is published by the Graduate School of Universitas Gadjah Mada.
expression, and freedom of religion, which of a comprehensive strategy to tackle the safeguards belief.
complexities of religious tensions (Bagir.
While freedom of religion or belief democratic states and universally affirmed .
an Schaik, 2016, p.
, its application varies significantly across jurisdictions.
The United States stands out for its strong emphasis on free speech as a constitutional right, where any legislation that constrains this freedom is generally viewed unfavorably (Holzaepfel, 2014, p.
Similarly, blasphemy laws However, in practice, the state appears reluctant to address the ongoing polemics stemming from the lawAos enactment.
In this case, the policeAos role is also significant, as they swiftly respond to reports from the majority religious group who feel their faith has been tarnished (Miles-Johnson et al.
2021, p.
This is evident in the Constitutional CourtAos frequent rejection of efforts to review the Blasphemy Law, indicating a lack of willingness to engage with these contentious are considered less relevant or morally inappropriate in Europe, particularly in The Constitutional CourtAos modern and secular nations (Cox, 2020, p.
rejecting the request for a material review There were anti-blasphemy, anti-apostasy, of Law Number 1/PNPS/1965 serves as an and anti-defamation laws in force in about illustration of recent legal developments.
59 countries in 2011 (Holzaepfel, 2014, p.
The court highlighted the relationship The global diversity in approaches to between this statute and Criminal Code blasphemy laws raises critical questions Article 156a, displaying the difficulties in about their compatibility with universal interpreting and contesting laws pertaining human rights.
to blasphemy (Argawati, 2023.
Mursal & Studies of blasphemy cases in Indonesia reveal that judicial decisions are often influenced by religious authorities and social pressure (Tyson, 2.
This has led to biased rulings, legal uncertainty, and repeated infringements of fair trial principles.
Also, it highlights a sentiment from the majority toward individuals they perceive as degrading the dignity of their faith (Hicks, 2015, p.
Although the prejudice may seem subtle, on a larger scale, it can lead to greater conflict.
Panggabean .
advocates for an approach addressing religious conflicts, emphasizing conflict resolution, mediation, dialogue, and negotiation as essential components Kawistara.
Vol.
No.
Desember 2025: 325Ai339 Zarzani, 2024, p.
Furthermore, the relationship between religion and the state is complicated by IndonesiaAos distinct sociopolitical environment, where religious values form the cornerstone of the countryAos ethics and spirituality.
In this sense.
Indonesia aspires to reconcile different religions and beliefs within societal, national, and state life as a non-secular nation (Argawati.
Butt, 2023, p.
Consequently, the Constitutional CourtAos decisions have adversely affected the phenomenon of blasphemy cases, fostering an environment where accusations of blasphemy can result in widespread criminalization.
In the context of IndonesiaAos complex Saraswati, 2.
The regulation was initiated blasphemy law, this paper aims to conduct by Oemar Seno Aji during the First National Conference of Law in 1963, grounded in the specifically on the country to uncover the first principle of Pancasila.
Aubelief in the one various implications of this legislation.
and only God,Ay and Article 29 of the 1945 The central thesis posits that, although Constitution, which formally recognizes blasphemy laws may have the stated purpose religion in Indonesia, emphasizing equality of protecting religious sentiments, their enforcement often leads to the criminalization communities (Siddik, 2.
According to of individuals exercising their freedom of Melissa Crouch .
, following the political In this sense, their actions are upheaval of 1965Ae1966.
Suharto.
SukarnoAos recorded on social or digital media, and the successor, banned communism but retained publicAos reaction provokes religious leaders the blasphemy decree, formalizing it as law in to take action by reporting them or initiating This law empowered religious leaders legal procedures.
This analysis situates to protect the status and interpretation of the discussion within the broader tension the six official religions and allowed the State between safeguarding religion and upholding to monitor and regulate religious practice.
freedom of expression, emphasizing how Today, the appropriateness and subject the lawAos practical application can produce matter of the blasphemy law are still unintended constraints on personal liberties.
prominent topics of public discourse in In order to underline the moral ramifications Indonesia, where there is ongoing debate of these problematic laws for the general (Crouch, 2012b, p.
In Indonesia, dozens public, the author will use a media studies of people are still reported to the police each approach to examine the publicAos responses year on charges of blasphemy.
Concerns to the parties who created them, in addition regarding the Blasphemy LawAos potential to to legal and criminological perspectives.
criminalize religious dissent and violate the Literature Review & Theoretical constitutional right to freedom of religion Framework The Blasphemy Law in Indonesia has its roots in a highly political context.
According to the literature, the initial presidential decree of 1965, issued by President Sukarno, emerged amid growing tensions and fears of communism prior to the so-called attempted Communist coup.
The decree was motivated in part by demands from Islamic organizations to protect the major recognized religions against what they viewed as threats from mystical or indigenous beliefs (Indrayanti & have led to scrutiny of the lawAos application and interpretation (Crouch, 2012a, p.
Hicks, 2015, p.
This problem not only creates heated discussion but also poses substantial questions about how Indonesian law must combine the protection of human rights with religious principles.
President Sukarno issued a decree in 1965 establishing the Blasphemy Law, which has since evolved, frequently reflecting the political dynamic and state authority of the time (Crouch, 2012a, p.
IndonesiaAos blasphemy law has Fany Nur Rahmadiana Hakim.
Untung Sumarwan AiHow Criminalization of Blasphemy on Social Media Intensifies .
evolved through multiple legal instruments.
This including the 1945 Constitution, the Criminal criminology perspective to analyze the Code.
PNPS No.
1 of 1965, and the Law on practical enforcement of blasphemy laws in Information and Electronic Transactions or Indonesia.
Critical criminology emphasizes UU ITE (Rokhmad et al.
, 2.
This layered how law is not neutral but functions as a tool legal framework has expanded the reach of of social control, reflecting power dynamics blasphemy regulation into digital spaces, and the interests of dominant groups rather enabling the criminalization of expressions than purely objective principles (Rusche & circulated through social media.
Kirchheimer, 1.
Critical criminologists Previous dimensions of how the law operates in Lucchesi & Cerase .
notes that criminalization can function to maintain control over the narratives and images of marginalized groups, offering insights into discursive shifts in identity and the rise of populist dynamics.
The widespread use of social media further complicates this landscape, as platforms increasingly become sites for criticism, bullying, and the policing of expression, limiting the practical exercise of freedom of opinion and expression (Saeed, 2.
The virality of content transforms legal processes, as public enforced, and that definitions of deviance and criminality are deeply influenced by societyAos broader power structures and institutions (Taylor et al.
, 1.
In the context of social media and blasphemy, this framework helps to examine how legal mechanisms intersect with public sentiment, political influence, and technological mediation to criminalize certain expressions.
By focusing on the everyday application of the law, critical criminology reveals how the enforcement of blasphemy provisions can disproportionately target marginalized groups, amplify penal populism, and shape discursive norms around religion and identity.
influence law enforcement, contributing to Methods of law by prioritizing emotional responses over impartial legal principles (Rustamaji et al.
, 2.
At the same time, scholars have stressed that the lawAos scope remains specific: only offenses that profane objects of worship or places of religious ritual fall under criminal sanction (Sitarz, 2.
Collectively, these studies illustrate the complex interplay between social media, public sentiment, and legal enforcement in shaping contemporary blasphemy criminalization.
Kawistara.
Vol.
No.
Desember 2025: 325Ai339 inequalities that shape how laws are made and pressure and viral outrage increasingly penal populism and undermining the rule This study manually collected data using a web search engine with the keyword Aureligious blasphemy,Ay focusing on blasphemy cases that went viral on digital media in In this context.
AuviralAy refers not to the news per se but to how content allegedly containing blasphemous elements gained widespread public attention and subsequently became the subject of criminal The emotional factor plays a significant role in driving the virality of such content, as strong public reactions often amplify the visibility and impact of these cases (Al- filtering, and sorting were carried out Rawi, 2019, p.
Denisova, 2023, p.
News articles serve as a critical reference to that presented a complete narrative of understand these cases chronologically and blasphemy cases that sparked significant in detail, including the profiles of both the complainant and the reported individual, the cases that included details about the legal legal articles involved, and the actions taken process, blasphemy application.
Electronic by law enforcement.
Information and Transactions laws, and Indonesia.
Only public reactions were selected for further Table 1.
Most Viral Blasphemy Cases in Indonesia .
Date Accused Complaiant Charge March 15 Lina Mukherjee (TikTok Content Creato.
Sapriadi (Legal Article 28 paragraph .
in conjunction with Article 45 paragraph .
of Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions as amended by Law Number 19 of 2016 June 23 Panji Gumilang (Founder of Al Zaytun Islamic Boarding Schoo.
Forum Advokat Pembela Pancasila (Pancasila Defenders Advocate Foru.
Article 14 paragraph 1 of Law Number 1 of 1946 concerning Criminal Law Regulations.
Article 45a paragraph .
in conjunction with Article 28 paragraph .
of Law Number 19 of 2016 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions, and Article 156a of the Criminal Code Komunitas Advokat Lingkar Nusantara (Lingkar Nusantara Advocate Communit.
Article 156a of the Criminal Code Aulia Rakhman December (Stand-up Comedia.
January Arya Wedakarna (Member of the Bali Regional Representative Counci.
Article 45A Paragraph .
of Law Number 19 of Indonesian 2016 concerning Amendments to the Law Number Council of Ulama 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and (MUI) Bali Transactions and/or Article 156 of the Criminal Code April 16 Gilbert Lumoindong (Pries.
Farhat Abbas (Lawye.
and Indonesian Youth Congress Article 156a of the Criminal Code, and Article 28 paragraph 2 in conjunction with Article 45A of the Electronic Information and Transactions Law April 22 Galih Noval Aji Prakoso or Galih Loss (TikTok Content Creato.
Police Cyber Patrol Article 45A Paragraph .
of Law Number 19 of 2016 concerning Amendments to the Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions and/or Article 156 of the Criminal Code October 4 Ratu Thalisa or Ratu Entok (TikTok Content Creato.
Christian Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions Fany Nur Rahmadiana Hakim.
Untung Sumarwan AiHow Criminalization of Blasphemy on Social Media Intensifies .
Thematic analysis was then employed offended by religious matters, have not to systematically categorize and interpret changed significantly.
Furthermore, cases of the key themes that emerged in the media blasphemy now surpass those related to the (Braun prohibition of religious worship or the halting allowed for a deeper understanding of the of house of worship construction, which also constitute violations of the right to freedom and social implications of media portrayals of religion (SETARA Institute, 2024, p.
of blasphemy, providing critical insights this context, the state becomes an actor in into how these narratives contribute to infringing on Freedom of Religion and Belief, criminalizing such acts.
as its law enforcement agencies receive and Clarke.
This process reports, enacting policing measures DISCUSSION against those deemed perpetrators.
Although there are dozens of cases.
Religious Blasphemy in Social Media Reports of cases allegedly involving religious blasphemy remain relatively high in Indonesia.
Statistics from the SETARA Institute .
show a stagnant trend, with the past 3-4 years revealing no significant blasphemy accusations, which continue to threaten individualsAo freedom of expression.
only a few can be categorized as viral.
The table below presents some of the cases that gained significant attention on social media during 2023 and 2024.
Top of FormBottom of Form At the beginning of 2023.
TikToker Lina Mukherjee was charged with blasphemy not for making offensive statements but for posting a video in which she recorded herself eating pork while saying AubismillahAy .
n the name of Go.
in advance.
The Palembang District Court sentenced her to two years in prison under the Electronic Information and Transactions Law, showcasing the evolving legal approach to blasphemy cases and the influence of digital platforms on public narratives (Hendrawan, 2.
Various news reports indicated that LinaAos actions were number of reports viewed as an affront to the term Aubismillah,Ay which Muslims consider sacred for initiating Figure 1.
Reported Religious Blasphemy good things.
The data shows a significant increase in blasphemy cases from 2021 to 2022, nearly While there has been a slight decrease since then, the ongoing allegations of blasphemy indicate that societal attitudes.
Kawistara.
Vol.
No.
Desember 2025: 325Ai339 Meanwhile, the case that occurred in mid-2023 involving an Islamic figure was not based on words but on actions.
It began at the Islamic Boarding School he founded, where a video circulated online showing female congregants in the front row behind the imam during the Eid prayer (BBC Indonesia, separate charges.
Although the police opened This led to a report being filed against a case, it appears that the investigation was him, and an investigation was launched.
not pursued further, partly due to societal Following the investigation, the police named pressure for him to make a public apology him a suspect, and as a result of the trial, he (BBC Indonesia, 2.
Additionally, several was sentenced to 1.
5 years in prison.
Islamic religious leaders responded by urging Towards the end of 2023, stand-up that the situation not be escalated further.
comedian Aulia Rakhman faced accusations In the same month, a police report on of blasphemy during a presidential campaign alleged blasphemy targeted a TikToker for mentioning the name AuMuhammadAy in known as Galih Loss or Galih Noval Aji his comedy material.
The Lampung Police Prakoso.
In his content, he made a pun on designated him as a suspect, igniting outrage the word AutaawudzAy .
phrase used to begin among netizens who perceived his remarks reading the Qura.
, as well as puns using as disrespectful to the Prophet within the the word AuustadAy (Islamic teache.
(Ayu & Islamic context (CNN Indonesia, 2.
The Hasan, 2.
He was not arrested because statement he made was focused on how someone reported him but because that many people now use the ProphetAos name, time, the cyber police were conducting a yet engage in criminal behavior, without However, his fate differed from that of directly insulting the Prophet himself.
the pastor.
Despite publicly apologizing, the Not long after, reports of a blasphemy case dragged Arya Wedakarna, a member
of the Bali Regional Representative Council
(DPD),
legal process was not halted.
He was named a suspect and detained, partly due to the growing public criticism that considered his actions excessive.
after refusing to wear an Islamic symbol.
A unique case emerged at the end of 2024 the hijab, at a promotional event.
The involving a TikToker named Ratu Thalisa.
Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) of Bali better known as Ratu Entok.
This case stands Province officially reported the case to the out because, unlike previous cases where National Police Criminal Investigation Unit, the majority religion was the complainant, it highlighting the ongoing intersection of involved a different religious group.
Ratu was personal choice, religious expectations, and reported for insulting Jesus.
in the content legal consequences (Rohmawati, 2.
AryaAos she created, she joked that Jesus should cut statement regarding the hijab was captured his hair because it resembled a womanAos in a video that circulated widely online.
long hair (Hasibuan, 2.
This offended April Christian Gilbert Lumoindong, became involved in a blasphemy case.
In a circulating video clip.
Christians, who subsequently reported her to the police.
She was charged, but she filed an exception against the penalty.
he mentioned prayer and zakat, which are Recent cases illustrate the intricate Islamic practices, during his sermon.
network connecting freedom of expression, was reported by two different parties with freedom of religion, public reaction, and Fany Nur Rahmadiana Hakim.
Untung Sumarwan AiHow Criminalization of Blasphemy on Social Media Intensifies .
legal action.
This demonstrates the legal of the law.
Constitutional Court judges complexities surrounding the interpretation of freedom of expression in a religiously careful interpretation of Article 156a by sensitive environment.
These cases reveal a law enforcement officials, including police, deviation from the conventional application prosecutors, and judges (Hasan, 2017, p.
of Article 156 of the Criminal Code.
The The absence of clear guidelines for state plays a role in facilitating offense- interpreting the article raises constitutional based accusations by enacting laws that concerns, as varied interpretations can result are often perceived as overly broad and in legal ambiguity and uncertainty.
open to interpretation, such as the Law on Further examination of the Blasphemy Electronic Information and Transactions.
LawAos Explanation deepens its complexity.
commonly known as the ITE Law (Argawati.
The requirement that the accused must have Critics argue that the ITE Law intentionally insulted or shown hostility functions like a Aurubber article,Ay as it can be towards a religion introduces subjectivity stretched to cover a wide range of offenses, into the legal framework.
This subjectivity including blasphemy and defamation (Hicks, calls into question the objectivity and Uddin, 2.
This flexibility allows neutrality of legal assessments, creating for the criminalization of online content opportunities for arbitrary application of based on subjective interpretations, often the law (Crouch, 2012a, p.
Additionally, leading to misuse for personal or ideological the emphasis on avoiding offensive words agendas (Crouch, 2.
As a result, these or phrases establishes subjective standards laws are being used more frequently in that may not be consistently applied in legal legal proceedings.
The rise of social media Moreover, the characteristics of platforms has acted as a catalyst for the the law allowing government interference in religious matters are a significant concern individual statements, paving the way for the (Crouch, 2012a, p.
These characteristics criminalization of blasphemous expressions.
Ambiguity of Legal Aspect between state and religion, potentially The blasphemy in Indonesia, particularly under Law 1/PNPS/1965, has undergone several judicial reviews in 2010, 2012, and most recently in 2023, revealing ongoing concerns and problematic aspects.
The relationship between this law and Article 156a of the Criminal Code but critical analysis highlights inherent A central debate focuses on the necessity for a comprehensive review Kawistara.
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Desember 2025: 325Ai339 jeopardizing individual freedoms and the autonomy of religious communities (Cohen, 2015, p.
This delicate balance between state governance and religious autonomy raises fundamental constitutional concerns.
Experts have identified two problematic elements embedded in the Blasphemy Law.
The vague definition of offenses, including AodeviantAo interpretations, creates ambiguity in legal proceedings.
Simultaneously, the references the Aobasic principles of religion,Ao Indirect blasphemy, particularly through suggests that each faith should have its the identification of common characteristics, representative authority (Bagir, 2013, p.
complicates the notion of insulting a specific This implicit recognition can lead to The subjective nature of defining preferential treatment and discrimination defamation through these characteristics in the enforcement of the law, favoring makes it difficult to comply with laws more populous groups while marginalizing intended to protect their credibility rather smaller ones.
Furthermore, even without than moral sensibilities (Cohen, 2015, p.
legal action, labeling an act as blasphemy The extent to which authorities can or defamation poses a significant challenge.
determine that an act of blasphemy equates Certain religious groups may use such to an insult remains subjective, illustrating nomenclature to criminalize differences of the tension between reputation protection opinion or dissent from the majority (Hicks, and moral sensitivity (Van Noorloos, 2014.
Uddin, 2.
This undermines tolerance This subjectivity in labeling actions and dialogue, justifying complaints regarding or speech is particularly problematic when the alleged misuse of religious symbols or the law lacks clear definitions for what expressions (Bagir, 2013, p.
Hakim, 2021, constitutes insulting expression.
Consequently, the law has become Moreover, the lack of detailed explanation a tool for fostering intolerance rather than surrounding the blasphemy law in Indonesia merits attention.
While Article 14 of the Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, definitions to potential state overreach, it stipulates that this freedom must not reveal the complexity of creating a legal conflict with public order or morality (Bagir, framework that respects both individual 2013, p.
This stipulation introduces a freedoms and religious diversity.
moral dimension into the legal framework.
Public Reactions Toward Alleged Religious The Blasphemy The and moral considerations in IndonesiaAos blasphemy law raises complex questions, highlighting the complicated relationship between free expression and conforming This tension demonstrates the fragility of free expression within the context of innate societal and cultural values (Clarke, 2011, p.
Recent cases show the inherent conflict between protecting the AodignityAo of religion and protecting individual liberties, leading to a disputable public discourse.
individual freedom, social order, and moral A personAos expression may clash with another individualAos or groupAos religious freedom, enabling the use of offense as a means of criminalization.
Article Paragraph Constitution further emphasizes the need to balance rights by considering morality, religious values, security, and public order within a democratic society.
In contrast to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the Indonesian Constitution expands the parameters of Fany Nur Rahmadiana Hakim.
Untung Sumarwan AiHow Criminalization of Blasphemy on Social Media Intensifies .
freedom of expression by incorporating A Critical Criminology Perspective on Aureligious valuesAy (Crouch, 2012a, p.
This Blasphemy Enforcement inclusion highlights a particular emphasis on safeguarding religious sentiments, indicating a distinct moral and cultural dimension within the legal framework.
IndonesiaAos blasphemy law, it becomes clear that influence its formulation and application.
Blasphemy laws differ from those that According to Kant, moral actions arise from primarily address modes of expression.
obligations based on reason, independent focus on alleged blasphemous messages of emotional impulses or personal desires capable of inciting public outrage.
The (Kant, 1.
These obligations stem from rejection of blasphemy stems from moral universal principles that extend beyond individual situations (Manik et al.
, 2023, p.
treatment of what many consider sacred.
cases like Lina Mukherjee (March 2.
When a country enacts a blasphemy law, it and Galih Noval (April 2.
illustrate how effectively embeds a specific moral vision into enforcement is grounded in varying moral its legal framework, restricting speech under perspectives, not universal principles.
When the guise of public morality (Rokhmad et al.
the criminalization of AoblasphemyAo is based This dynamic raises significant human on moral judgments that can vary widely, it rights concerns, as these restrictions are potentially infringes on individual freedoms.
often based on moral considerations rather Ethical considerations suggest that violations than actual acts of blasphemy, defamation, of established rules and standards by those or threats to public order (Cox, 2020, p.
in authority can be deemed corrupt (Walsh.
Holzaepfel, 2014, p.
Numerous cases 2013, p.
This approach emphasizes the reveal that law enforcement often arrests motivations behind actions rather than their suspected blasphemers not for their actions but in response to public outrage.
Blasphemy laws are frequently used as In this context, it is crucial to incorporate social control tools by dominant groups to a critical perspective that emphasizes the maintain their authority over marginalized power dynamics that influence social stigma As Hall .
argues, laws or criminalization of dissenting views that governing morality often reflect the interests may arise from the inability to conform.
of those in power, reinforcing existing This creates challenges, particularly when inequalities (Hall et al.
, 2013, p.
These considering that moral obligations based on laws protect established religious or cultural religious beliefs may not align across different norms while also suppressing dissent.
It is groups (Millie, 2016, p.
The integration reflected through Panji Gumilang (June 2.
of religious values into the legal moral and Arya Wedakarna (January 2.
, where order necessitates careful consideration of the diverse beliefs within society and their The application of blasphemy implications for human rights.
laws can stigmatize those who are labeled Kawistara.
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Desember 2025: 325Ai339 as blasphemers or defamers.
According Additionally, the actions of law enforcement, to Becker .
, the labeling process influenced by public pressure from the establishes a social identity that can lead to majority, reveal the unfairness of the criminal marginalization and exclusion (Becker, 1963, justice process.
Data confirms that the law Furthermore, it can have severe social disproportionately affects ordinary citizens consequences that disproportionately affect and content creators, despite their social vulnerable populations.
media fame.
Meanwhile, those with authority A deeper examination of intentions is essential when evaluating individuals expressing their opinions rather than solely focusing on the societal turmoil that may follow statements deemed offensive to specific religious groups.
Cases like Ratu Thalisa (Oct 2.
or Aulia Rakhman (Dec 2.
demonstrate how viral outrage shapes selectively enforce laws with their power, processing only those they consider to have committed similar offenses (Brown & Schept, 2017, p.
This perspective underscores the limitations and injustices of the legal system in addressing offenses like blasphemy.
CONCLUSION
law enforcement.
Public attention and Public reactions to blasphemy cases in social media virality influence police and Indonesia illustrate the profound societal prosecutor decisions, aligning with penal tensions surrounding freedom of expression Society often biases individuals perceived blasphemy often provoke strong reinforcing the influence of societal norms community responses, leading to demands on ethical perspectives (Bostyn & Roets, for legal action against individuals accused Additionally, psychological factors of offending religious beliefs.
Social media indicate that individuals typically make more plays a significant role in spreading content principled judgments about their own moral quickly and widely.
Public outrage becomes choices compared to their perceptions inevitable, as people can react in real time to of othersAo choices (Li & Rao, 2.
This the content circulating in cyberspace.
This not only reflects collective moral indignation considerations reflects an intrinsic tendency but also contributes to a broader societal driven by a sense of obligation.
trend toward intolerance, where dissenting decision-making.
Instances The concept of critical criminology, in opinions can swiftly be met with accusations this case, differs from traditional criminology.
and potential criminal charges.
Such a It focuses more on the harms that occurred climate of fear can silence voices that might rather than just on legal violations (Presser otherwise contribute to meaningful dialogue & Sandberg, 2019, p.
In blasphemy about religious and social issues.
cases, there is often no real harm, and the Furthermore, the ambiguity inherent violation of the law is unclear, with reports and accusations typically stemming from personal offense by a complainant or group.
and interpretation, often resulting in the IndonesiaAos Fany Nur Rahmadiana Hakim.
Untung Sumarwan AiHow Criminalization of Blasphemy on Social Media Intensifies .
The lack of clear definitions Konstitusi surrounding what constitutes blasphemy w w w.
m k r i .
i d / i n d e x .
p h p ? p a g e = w e b .
allows for subjective interpretations that can vary significantly between different This vagueness can lead to inconsistent enforcement, where individuals may be prosecuted not for genuine threats to public order but rather for challenging prevailing social norms.
This analysis shows that viral Republik Ayu.
, & Hasan.
Al.
April .
Ini Isi Konten TikToker Galih Loss yang Diduga Lakukan Penistaan Agama.
Tempo.
https:// co/hukum/ini-isi-kontentiktoker-galih-loss-yang-diduga-lakukanpenistaan-agama-65197 Bagir.
Defamation of Religion Law in Post-Reformasi Indonesia: Is Revision Possible? Australian Law, 1Ae16.
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Journal Asian https://doi.
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Kerukunan dan Penodaan Agama: Alternatif Penanganan Masalah.
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Ultimately, these BBC Indonesia.
Panji Gumilang Dituntut 1,5 Tahun Penjara Dalam Kasus Penodaan Agama.
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https://w.
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