Cakrawala Pendidikan
Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan
Vol. 44 No. 3, October 2025, pp.568-578
https://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/cp/issue/view/2958
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v44i3.86211

Sociocognitive rhythmic physical activity to improve basic movement
skills in primary learners
Riky Dwihandaka12*, Joko Nurkamto1, M. Furqon Hidayatullah1, Fauzi2, Fadli Ihsan2
1
Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia
2
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
*Corresponding Author: rikydwihandaka@student.uns.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Rhythmic physical activity has the potential to enhance fundamental movement skills in children aged 8–9
years; however, research on this topic remains limited. The objective of this study was to examine the
effectiveness of socio-cognitive-based rhythmic physical activity in improving the fundamental movement
skills of elementary school students aged 8–9 years. A total of 40 students (20 boys and 20 girls) were
randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. Both groups participated in a fourweek intervention program conducted three times per week. Fundamental movement skills were assessed
using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 Short Form (TGMD-3 Short Form) one day before and after
the intervention. After the four-week intervention, the experimental group demonstrated a significant
improvement in fundamental movement skills. All seven items of the TGMD-3 Short Form showed
statistically significant enhancements: hop with one leg (p < 0.05), Gallop (p < 0.05), long jump from place
(p < 0.05), overhand throw (p < 0.05), two-handed catch (p < 0.05), stationary dribble (p < 0.05), and twohanded strike (p < 0.05). This study provides empirical evidence that an eight-week socio-cognitive-based
rhythmic physical activity program significantly improves the fundamental movement skills of children
aged 8–9 years. The improvement in movement skills was greater in children who participated in the sociocognitive rhythmic physical activity program compared to those who engaged in general physical activities.
This rhythmic activity model can serve as an effective alternative learning material for rhythmic activity
instruction in elementary schools.
Keywords: effectiveness, rhythmic physical activity, basic movement skills
Article history
Received:
04 June 2025

Revised:
15 July 2025

Accepted:
12 September 2025

Published:
06 October 2025

Citation (APA Style): Dwihandaka, R., Nurkamto, J., Hidayatullah, M. F., Fauzi, F., & Ihsan, F. (2025).
Sociocognitive rhythmic physical activity to improve basic movement skills in primary learners. Cakrawala
Pendidikan: Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan, 44(3), pp. 568-578. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v44i3.86211

INTRODUCTION
Fundamental movement skills (FMS) form the foundational basis of children's motor
development and serve as prerequisites for more advanced physical competencies, such as
engaging in sports and performing daily physical activities. FMS consists of three primary
components: locomotor skills (e.g., running, jumping, sliding), manipulative skills (e.g.,
throwing, catching, kicking), and stability skills (e.g., balancing, turning, body rotation) (Gallahue
et al., 2012). Children who develop strong FMS are more likely to participate in complex physical
activities and maintain an active lifestyle throughout their lives (Lubans et al., 2010). Conversely,
limited mastery of FMS during childhood can lead to reduced participation in physical activity
and increase the risk of long-term health issues such as obesity and psychosocial problems (Ma
& Luo, 2023).
Unfortunately, the decline in FMS quality among primary school-aged children has become
a growing concern in many countries, including Indonesia. Children today are more inclined to
engage in sedentary activities such as watching television or playing with gadgets rather than
participating in physical activities that stimulate motor skills. A study by Hardy et al. (2010) found

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that many children aged 6–10 fail to attain age-appropriate levels of FMS proficiency. This
presents a significant challenge for educators, particularly in designing physical education
curricula that effectively stimulate motor skill development.
In this context, rhythmic physical activity has emerged as a promising alternative teaching
method. Rhythmic physical activity refers to motor activities integrated with music and rhythm,
encompassing rhythmic gymnastics, creative dance, and rhythmic games tailored to children's
developmental stages. According to Gallahue et al. (2012), rhythmic activities are well-suited for
children aged 6–10 as they stimulate motor, cognitive, and affective aspects in an integrated
manner. Children are more engaged and motivated to participate in lessons that involve music
and rhythmic movement because they are enjoyable and developmentally appropriate.
Furthermore, empirical studies have shown that rhythmic physical activities enhance
coordination, balance, movement rhythm, and motor creativity in children. Research by Marinšek
and Denac (2020) confirmed that integrating music and movement in physical education
programs significantly improves gross motor skills and rhythmic abilities in primary school-aged
children. These activities not only foster motor development but also strengthen the connections
between cognitive and emotional domains.
However, many of the current approaches to implementing rhythmic physical activity
remain traditional and are not yet grounded in comprehensive learning theories. In this regard, the
socio-cognitive approach developed by Albert Bandura can be employed to enhance the
effectiveness of interventions. This theory emphasizes the role of social environment, modeling,
observation, self-regulation, and self-efficacy in the learning process (Bandura, 1986). In physical
education settings, this approach views learners as active agents who learn through observation,
direct experience, and reflection on their own and others’ behaviors.
The socio-cognitive approach is particularly relevant for children aged 8–9, who are in
Piaget’s concrete operational stage of development. At this stage, children begin to understand
cause-effect relationships, imitate behaviors observed by teachers or peers, and develop a sense
of self through the feedback they receive. Therefore, rhythmic physical activities designed with
socio-cognitive principles will support learning not only through physical practice but also
through structured cognitive and social processes. For instance, children may imitate movements
demonstrated by a teacher or peer, assess their performance by observing outcomes, and be
motivated by the success of their peers (Zhou et al., 2021).
Nonetheless, empirical studies that integrate rhythmic physical activity with a sociocognitive perspective in primary school physical education are still scarce, particularly in
Indonesia. Most existing research focuses solely on physical aspects, without accounting for the
social and cognitive factors that support movement learning. A study by Hu et al. (2020)
demonstrated that theory-based approaches are more effective than conventional methods in
enhancing FMS. They compared Novel Rhythmic Physical Activities (NRPA) with Traditional
Rhythmic Physical Activities (TRPA) and found that NRPA, which employs a theory-based
pedagogical approach, led to significant improvements in children’s motor skills.
Based on this background, it is important to conduct a study that examines the effectiveness
of socio-cognitively-based rhythmic physical activity in improving fundamental movement skills
among primary school children. Such an intervention is expected to contribute to the development
of enjoyable, structured, and effective physical education learning models grounded in sound
learning theories. In addition, the findings of this study are expected to provide practical
alternatives for physical education teachers in implementing rhythmic activities that focus not
only on physical achievements but also on students’ social and cognitive development.
Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of socio-cognitively-based
rhythmic physical activities in enhancing fundamental movement skills among 8–9-year-old
primary school students. The study tests the hypothesis that rhythmic physical activities designed
using a socio-cognitive approach are more effective than conventional physical activities in
improving locomotor, manipulative, and stability movement aspects in primary school-aged
children. Through a structured scientific approach, the results of this study are expected to enrich
the literature on physical education curriculum development and serve as a foundation for future
interventions in early childhood movement education.
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METHOD
This study employed a quantitative approach using a quasi-experimental design, involving
an experimental group and a control group. The research subjects consisted of 40 students aged
8–9 years from two elementary schools in Kulon Progo Regency. The experimental group
comprised 20 students from Karangsari 2 Public Elementary School, while the control group
consisted of 20 students from Widoro Public Elementary School.
The inclusion criteria for participants were as follows: (1) second-grade elementary
students aged 8–9 years, (2) willingness to participate in the entire research program, (3) not
enrolled in any extracurricular or other motor training programs outside school, and (4) having
obtained written parental or guardian consent. All participants signed an informed consent form
after receiving an explanation of the study's objectives and procedures.
The experimental group received an intervention in the form of rhythm-based physical
activity grounded in the socio-cognitive approach for four weeks, with a frequency of three
sessions per week and a duration of 8 minutes and 30 seconds per session. Each session was
divided into three parts warm-up, main activity, and cool-down structured according to rhythmic
activity principles from stages B1 to B5. The intervention was administered by the Physical
Education, Sports, and Health (PJOK) teachers at each respective school. Meanwhile, the control
group did not receive any intervention and only participated in their regular school activities.
The instrument used to measure fundamental motor skills was the Test of Gross Motor
Development 3 Short Form (TGMD-3 Short Form). Measurements were conducted one day
before (pretest) and one day after (post test) the intervention.
Data analysis was carried out using SPSS version 27.0. The analysis procedure began with
assumption tests, namely the normality test using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and the
homogeneity test using Levene’s Test. Since the results indicated that the data were not normally
distributed and not homogeneous, non-parametric tests were employed. The Wilcoxon Signed
Rank Test was used to examine the differences between pretest and posttest within each group,
while the Kruskal–Wallis test was applied to determine differences between the experimental and
control groups. All analyses were conducted at a significant level of 0.05.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
Normality test
To ensure that the research data met the requirements for further statistical analysis, a
normality test was conducted on the measurement results of fundamental motor skills in both the
experimental and control groups, at both the pretest and posttest stages. The normality test was
performed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov method, and the results are presented in Table 1.
Based on the results presented in Table 1, it is evident that all variables of fundamental
motor skills, both in the experimental group and the control group, show significance values (pvalue) less than 0.05. This indicates that the data are not normally distributed, for both pretest and
posttest measurements across all fundamental motor skill items. Therefore, the assumption of
normality is not met. Consequently, non-parametric tests, such as the Wilcoxon Test and the
Kruskal-Wallis Test, were used for subsequent data analysis, as they are more appropriate under
these conditions.
Homogeneity test
After conducting a normality test on the fundamental motor skills data and finding that the
data were not normally distributed, the next step was to perform a homogeneity test to determine
whether the variances between groups were equal. The results of the homogeneity test for each
component of fundamental motor skills are presented in Table 2. Based on the results of the
homogeneity test presented in Table 2, several components of fundamental motor skills showed
significance values (Sig.) less than 0.05, namely Hop With 1 Leg, Gallop, Long Jump from Place,
Catch (Two-Handed), and Strike.
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Table 1. Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test of basic movement skills of experimental and
control groups
Group
Experiment (N = 20)

Variable
Hop With 1 Leg
Gallop
Long Jump from Place
Throw Overhead
Catch (Two-Handed)
Dribble Stationary
Strike

Control (N = 20)

Hop With 1 Leg
Gallop
Long Jump from Place
Throw Overhead
Catch (Two-Handed)
Dribble Stationary
Strike

Group
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest

Statistic
0.226
0.387
0.398
0.350
0.330
0.376
0.280
0.449
0.538
0.261
0.284
0.361
0.399
0.389
0.263
0.333
0.424
0.499
0.400
0.438
0.300
0.247
0.538
0.527
0.276
0.288
0.238
0.288

p-value
0.009
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

Description
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal
Not Normal

Table 2. Homogeneity test of basic movement skills
Basic movement skills
Hop with 1 Leg
Gallop
Long Jump from Place
Throw Overhead
Catch (Two-Handed)
Dribble Stationary
Strike

Levene Statistic
Statistic
df
Sig.
5.784
1;38
0.021
5.384
1;38
0.026
7.728
1;38
0.008
2.463
1;38
0.125
81.000
1;38
0.000
2.449
1;38
0.126
4.711
1;38
0.036

Description
Not Homogeneous
Not Homogeneous
Not Homogeneous
Homogeneous
Not Homogeneous
Homogeneous
Not Homogeneous

This indicates that the data for these components are not homogeneous across groups.
Meanwhile, two components, Throw Overhead and Dribble Stationary, had significant values
greater than 0.05, suggesting that their variances are homogeneous. Since the majority of the data
do not meet the assumptions of normality and homogeneity, subsequent data analyses employed
non-parametric tests to obtain more valid results.
T-test results
After it is known that the data is not normally distributed and not homogeneous, an analysis
is carried out using the Wilcoxon nonparametric test to determine the difference in basic
movement skills between the pretest and posttest in each group. The Wilcoxon test results for the
experimental and control groups are shown in Table 3.

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Table 3. Wilcoxon test results pretest - posttest basic movement skills of experimental and
control groups
Group
Experiment
(N = 20)

Variable

Group

Mean

Hop With 1 Leg

Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest
Pretest
Posttest

1.95
2.60
2.40
2.70
2.15
2.70
1.70
2.65
2.05
2.55
1.65
2.55
2.20
2.95
1.80
1.95
2.35
2.20
2.
2.10
1.90
2.10
2.05
2.10
1.70
1.85
2.65
2.85

Gallop
Long Jump from
Place
Throw Overhead
Catch (Two-Handed)
Dribble Stationary
Strike
Control (N
= 20)

Hop With 1 Leg
Gallop
Long Jump from
Place
Throw Overhead
Catch (Two-Handed)
Dribble Stationary
Strike

Std.
Deviation
0.759
0.503
0.598
0.571
0.745
0.657
0.737
0.671
0.224
0.510
0.671
0.510
0.523
0.510
0.696
0.605
0.587
0.523
0.459
0.447
0.788
0.852
0.224
0.308
0.657
0.671
0.813
0.671

p-value

Description

0.002

There is a difference

0.014

There is a difference

0,008

There is a difference

0,001

There is a difference

0.002

There is a difference

0.001

There is a difference

0.001

There is a difference

0.180

No Difference

0.083

No Difference

0.414

No Difference

0.157

No Difference

0.317

No Difference

0.180

No Difference

0.046

There is a difference

Based on the results of the Wilcoxon test presented in Table 3, it was found that there was
a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results in the experimental group for all
fundamental motor skill variables. This is indicated by p-values less than 0.05 across all items,
suggesting an improvement in fundamental motor skills following participation in the rhythmbased physical activity program grounded in sociocognitive theory. In contrast, in the control
group, most items did not show significant differences between the pretest and posttest (p-values
> 0.05), except for the Strike variable, which showed a significant difference. These findings
indicate that improvements in fundamental motor skills occurred more significantly in the group
that received the sociocognitive-based rhythmic physical activity intervention compared to the
group that did not receive any specific treatment.
T-test results
To see the difference in the improvement of basic movement skills between the
experimental group and the control group after treatment, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used. This
test was chosen because the data did not meet the assumptions of normality and homogeneity.
The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test are presented in Table 4.
Based on the results of the Kruskal Wallis test presented in Table 4, it was found that all
aspects of fundamental motor skills showed significant differences between the experimental
group and the control group (p < 0.05). The average improvement in scores in the experimental
group was higher compared to the control group, with the most significant differences observed
in the Strike component (p = 0.001), Dribble Stationary (p = 0.002), and Throw Overhead (p =
0.003). These findings indicate that the socio-cognitive-based rhythmic physical activity
intervention has a greater impact on improving fundamental motor skills in children aged 8–9
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years than regular physical activity. Therefore, the socio-cognitive-based approach can be
considered an effective alternative for developing basic motor abilities in elementary schools.
Table 4. Kruskall-Wallis test results of basic movement skills of experimental and control
groups
Measurement test Basic
movement skills
Hop With 1 Leg
Gallop
Long Jump from Place
Throw Overhead
Catch (Two-Handed)
Dribble Stationary
Strike

Experiment
Mean± (SD)
0.65± (0.67)
0.30± (0.47)
0.55± (0.76)
0.95± (0.89)
0.50± (0.51)
0.90± (0.72)
0.75± (0.64)

Control Mean±
(SD)
0.15± (0.49)
0.15± (0.37)
0.10± (0.55)
0.20± (0.62)
0.05± (0.22)
0.15± (0.49)
0.20± (0.41)

p-value

Description

0.014
0.003
0.019
0.003
0.018
0.002
0.001

There is a difference
There is a difference
There is a difference
There is a difference
There is a difference
There is a difference
There is a difference

Discussion
Interpretation of research results
The results of this study indicate that socio-cognitive-based rhythmic physical activity
significantly improves fundamental motor skills (FMS) in children aged 8–9 years. Wilcoxon test
data showed a significant increase in all aspects of FMS in the experimental group (p < 0.05),
which included locomotor skills (hop on one leg, gallop, standing long jump), manipulative skills
(overhand throw, catch, stationary dribble, strike), whereas the control group did not exhibit
significant changes, except in the strike skill. This demonstrates that participation in a
systematically designed rhythmic physical activity program using a socio-cognitive approach can
comprehensively develop children's motor abilities.
The socio-cognitive approach is based on Bandura’s theory, which emphasizes that
learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling, aligning well with the
characteristics of primary school-aged children. In this study, children not only moved
rhythmically but also imitated movements demonstrated directly by physical education instructors
or teachers. This supports the internalization process of motor skills through social interaction
and positive reinforcement within the context of music and rhythmic movement (Han et al., 2022;
Lanang, et al., 2023; Laure & Habe, 2023).
These findings further reinforce that fundamental motor skills, which serve as a critical
foundation for motor development and readiness for further sports activities, can be effectively
enhanced through age-appropriate and enjoyable media. Socio-cognitive-based rhythmic physical
activity provides a learning environment that supports children’s social, emotional, and cognitive
needs, contributing to the effectiveness of motor skill learning (Marinšek, & Denac, 2020; Yang
et al., 2025; Zhao et al., 2024) Thus, this intervention model not only impacts physical
performance improvements but also fosters positive attitudes and behaviors toward physical
activity from an early age. Consistent with these findings, Hidayat (2013) demonstrated that selfmonitoring and goal-setting strategies significantly enhance elementary students’ mastery of
motor skills and intrinsic motivation, underscoring the importance of self-regulation in physical
education contexts.
The most effective method to promote the development of fundamental motor skills (FMS)
and rhythmic abilities (RA) in early childhood is a program combining music with movement
(Marinšek & Denac, 2020).
Comparison with previous studies
The results of this study are consistent with several previous studies that emphasize the
importance of rhythmic physical activity in enhancing fundamental movement skills (FMS) in
early childhood. Gallahue et al. (2012) explain that rhythmic activities are highly suitable for
children aged 6–10 years because they develop basic motor skills while simultaneously
introducing children to concepts of rhythm and music. In the context of this study, systematically

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and structurally conducted rhythmic physical activities provided varied and enjoyable movement
experiences, which are key to effective motor learning in children.
Further research by Hu et al. (2020) demonstrated that Novel Rhythmic Physical Activities
(NRPA) are more effective than Traditional Rhythmic Physical Activities (TRPA) in improving
Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS). This appears to align with the approach used in this study,
where the sociocognitive element adds an additional dimension of social learning and motivation
reinforcement, making the activity more than just ordinary physical movement. In line with this,
Sucipto et al. (2023) found that applying tactical and gender-responsive learning approaches in
physical education increases students’ enjoyment levels, confirming that motivational and social
dimensions are essential factors in sustaining engagement during movement-based activities.
Moreover, Marinšek and Denac (2020) assert that the combination of music and movement
is the best strategy to promote the development of FMS and Rhythmic Ability (RA) in children.
Therefore, when music is used as an enjoyable external enhancer that guides children's movement
rhythm, it positively impacts coordination, response speed, and mastery of motor skills.
Thus, the findings of this study are consistent with existing literature and reinforce the
evidence that approaches involving music, rhythm, and social learning principles can be highly
effective methods for developing children’s fundamental movement skills.
Strengths of research design
This study possesses several design strengths that support the validity and reliability of the
obtained findings. First, the use of a quasi-experimental design with both experimental and control
groups provides a robust basis for directly comparing the effects of the intervention. With a
balanced sample size (20 children in each group) and random participant selection, selection bias
can be minimized (Berger et al 2021; Miller et al, 2020; Sella et al. 2021).
Second, the employment of an internationally standardized instrument for measuring
fundamental motor skills, namely the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 Short Form (TGMD3 SF), ensures strong content and construct validity. The TGMD-3 has been demonstrated to
objectively and reliably assess locomotor and manipulative skills in children, including within the
Indonesian cultural context.
Third, the comprehensive data testing procedures, including normality and homogeneity
tests, indicate the researchers’ attention to data characteristics before selecting appropriate
statistical tests. When the data were non-normal and heterogeneous, the researchers appropriately
applied nonparametric tests such as the Wilcoxon and Kruskal-Wallis tests, thereby maintaining
the statistical validity of the analysis results (Bongbeebina & Rahman, 2025).
Additionally, the intervention activities were conducted over four weeks with a frequency
of three sessions per week, reflecting an adequate training intensity to observe motor skill
improvements. The activities were directly supervised by physical education teachers at each
school, reinforcing genuine involvement within the educational context rather than merely
laboratory simulation.
The combination of experimental design, the use of valid measurement tools, and control
over implementation establishes a strong methodological foundation for the findings, making this
study a valuable reference for the implementation of rhythm-based physical activity programs in
elementary schools.
Explanation of the effectiveness of rhythmic activities
The effectiveness of rhythmic physical activity in enhancing fundamental motor skills can
be explained through a combination of physiological, psychological, and socio-cognitive
principles. Physiologically, repetitive movements performed in a specific rhythm stimulate the
motor nervous system, strengthen the coordination of large muscle groups, and improve control
over balance and agility. The accompanying music also activates the limbic system, which plays
a role in emotion and motivation, thereby increasing children’s enthusiasm and engagement in
the activity. Similarly, Nugraha et al. (2022) highlighted structured and reflective physical
education practices, such as circuit learning involving peer observation and self-assessment,

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effectively improving students’ critical thinking and physical fitness, reinforcing the value of
interactive and feedback-based motor learning.
From a psychological perspective, the structured and predictable rhythm helps children
prepare their bodies for subsequent movements. This fosters anticipatory motor planning, which
is crucial for motor skill development. Music and rhythm provide auditory cues that regulate
movement timing, enhance synchronization, and accelerate the understanding of movement
patterns (Janzen et al., 2022).
From a socio-cognitive standpoint, such activities offer learning opportunities through
observation and imitation. Children mimic movements from teachers or peers, reinforcing
learning through vicarious experiences. Additionally, within Bandura’s theoretical framework,
positive reinforcement (such as praise, encouragement, or enjoyable movements) enhances
children’s self-efficacy in physical activity. When children feel capable of following the rhythm
and mastering movements, their confidence in engaging in physical activity increases (Libertus &
Hauf, 2017).
Rhythmic activities also facilitate meaningful social interactions with instructors and
fellow participants. This social element acts as a key motivational factor that accelerates the
internalization of skills. Therefore, the effectiveness of the intervention lies not only in the
movements themselves but also in the accompanying emotional, social, and cognitive contexts
(Tunçgenç & Cohen, 2018; Vazou et al., 2020; William & Berthelsen, 2019).
Research limitations
Although this study yielded significant findings, several limitations should be considered
for a more cautious interpretation of the results. First, the intervention duration was limited to
only four weeks. While this period was sufficient to demonstrate initial changes, it may not have
been optimal for assessing long-term effects, such as skill retention or the formation of active
habits.
Second, the sample size was relatively small and confined to two elementary schools in
Kulon Progo Regency. This limits the generalizability of the findings to a broader population with
different geographic, social, or economic backgrounds.
Third, although the physical education teachers conducted activities following the prepared
guidelines, variations in teaching methods and facilitation styles may have influenced the final
outcomes. The absence of strict control over the implementation process in the field could have
led to differences in the quality of execution between schools.
Furthermore, this study did not include additional variables such as the impact of the
activities on children’s non-motor aspects, including self-confidence, musical intelligence, or
motivation toward sports. Follow-up measurements after the intervention were also not
conducted, leaving it unclear whether the observed skill improvements were maintained over
time.
Taking these limitations into account, the study’s results remain relevant and significant;
however, further research with a broader design and longer duration is necessary to strengthen
the evidence regarding the effectiveness of socio-cognitive-based rhythmic physical activity
interventions.
Practical implications
The findings of this study have important practical implications in the field of physical
education and motor learning in elementary schools. First, the socio-cognitive based rhythmic
physical activity model can serve as an alternative learning approach in rhythmic activities, which
have traditionally been conducted using conventional methods. By integrating elements of music,
rhythm, and social learning, teachers can create a more engaging, enjoyable, and meaningful
learning experience for students.
Second, this rhythmic physical activity can provide an inclusive learning solution. The
movements involved are simple, progressive, and accessible to all children, including those with
mild motor impairments. This enables all students to actively participate in physical education
without feeling left behind.
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Third, the involvement of physical education teachers as direct implementers of the
intervention demonstrates that this program is easy to integrate into the school curriculum.
Without requiring complex facilities or equipment, the activities can be conducted in classrooms,
fields, or school halls with minimal resources. These findings align with Sunardianta et al. (2024),
who emphasized that child-friendly and well-managed learning environments in physical
education encourage students’ engagement and support the holistic development of motor and
health competencies.
Fourth, the program can strengthen the synergy between motor development and children’s
socio-emotional growth. When children successfully imitate movements, receive positive
reinforcement, and interact in an enjoyable environment, this contributes to building their selfconfidence and a positive attitude toward physical activity.
Therefore, this program not only benefits the enhancement of fundamental motor skills but
also supports holistic child development in terms of character education and health. Consequently,
it is recommended that this approach be systematically integrated into teacher training, physical
education curricula, and elementary school education policies.
Suggestions for further research
Based on the results and limitations of this study, several recommendations can be made
for future research. First, studies with longer intervention durations, for example, 8 to 12 weeks,
are needed to evaluate whether improvements in fundamental motor skills can be maintained or
even further developed over an extended period. A longer duration also allows for the emergence
of more permanent changes in physical behavior. Second, the scope of research should be
expanded to include various regions with diverse social, cultural, and economic backgrounds. By
broadening the geographical sample, the generalizability of the results will be strengthened,
enabling the findings to serve as a basis for national educational policy. Third, future studies
should incorporate additional variables, such as exercise motivation, interest in physical activity,
and children’s self-perception of their motor abilities. These variables are essential to
understanding the psychosocial impact of the given intervention. Fourth, a mixed-methods
approach combining quantitative and qualitative data can provide a deeper understanding.
Interviews with teachers and students, as well as direct observations during activities, can reveal
aspects of the learning process that are not captured solely by statistical data.
Finally, it is important to develop evidence-based modules or guides that can be widely
utilized by physical education teachers or child coaches. These modules should include
sociocognitive principles, rhythmic activity structures, and strategies to enhance motivation in
motor learning. With this development strategy, the impact of sociocognitive-based rhythmic
physical activities can be optimized as part of active, enjoyable, and adaptive learning for
elementary school children.

CONCLUSION
The findings of this study indicate that engaging in socio-cognitive-based rhythmic
physical activity for four weeks effectively improves fundamental motor skills in children aged 8
to 9 years. The fundamental motor skills of children in the treatment group showed greater
improvement compared to those in the group participating in regular or general physical activities.
This rhythmic physical activity model can serve as an alternative learning material for rhythmic
activities in elementary schools.

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