Djahwasi, et.
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Expressive Timing and Tempo Variance in Six Landmark Recordings of Villa-Lobos' Etude No.
A Sonic Visualizer-Based Computational Analysis Herry Rizal Djahwasi1.
Muchammad Bayu Tejo Sampurno2.
Nazimin Nazeri3 Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Perak Darul Ridzuan.
Malaysia.
E-mail:
E-ISSN 2338-6770
herry@fmsp.
Submitted date : September 18th, 2025 Revised date Department of Music and Music Education.
Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, : October 12nd, 2025 Accepted date : November 24 , 2025 Department of Performing Arts.
Faculty of Music and Performing Arts.
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Perak Darul Ridzuan.
Malaysia.
E-mail: tejo @fmsp.
Correspondence Address:
Faculty of Music and Performing Arts.
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
E-mail: herry@fmsp.
Department of Music and Music Education.
Faculty of Music and Performing Arts.
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Perak Darul Ridzuan.
Malaysia.
E-mail:
nazimin@fmsp.
Abstract: : Prior research on expressive timing has focused on piano and violin, providing models for quantifying tempo and dynamic patterns, but has rarely addressed plucked-string instruments.
This absence of a comparative, data-driven study represents a signiAcant gap in deAning an interpretative expression of music performance research in classical guitar.
The structure of the harmonic language of Villa-Lobos' Etude No.
1 is essential for explaining expressive phenomena.
Since mechanical, regular arpeggio movements shape the pattern of this etude.
However, there is no prior multi-recording, quantitative comparison of guitarists' expressive timing for this work.
This study addresses that gap by applying Sonic Visualiser on six landmark recordings (Segovia, 1961.
Parkening, 1971.
Bream, 1978.
Yepes, 1979.
Romero, 1987.
VidoviN, 2.
, from which it extracted tempo curves and intensity proAles, aligned them to a reference score, and calculated per-performer basic tempo, global/local tempo variation, and coefAcient of variation (CV).
This study was structured in three sequential stages: data collection, data processing, and data analysis, each aimed at examining the expressive timing characteristics in musical The approach quantiAes both structured tempo changes indicated in the score and unstructured performance deviations .
tructure and un-structure Cuctuation.
to capture each performance's expressive proAle.
The Anding of this study demonstrates that Segovia exhibited the widest tempo range .
BPM.
CV 19.
2%), while Yepes demonstrated the narrowest .
85 BPM.
7%).
Parkening (CV 13.
1%).
Bream (CV 16.
8%).
Romero (CV 14.
2%), and VidoviN (CV 5%) fell between these extremes.
These existing patterns of basic tempo selection A 2023 The Author.
This work is licensed under a Creative Common Attribution 4.
0 International License Page 360 Djahwasi, et.
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support the hypothesis that performers would display unique tempo selection These patterns quantify interpretive traditions and highlight how computer analysis correlates score prescriptions with the sounds performed.
Keywords:
classical guitar recording.
Villa Lobos.
computational performance expressive timing.
tempo variance.
Sonic Visualizer.
Etude No.
A 2023 The Author.
This work is licensed under a Creative Common Attribution 4.
0 International License Page 361 Djahwasi, et.
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Introduction DeAning expressive performance of Western classical music based on performance recording is one of the most complex areas of musical inquiry, as it encompasses perceptual response, expressive embodiment, and analytical reasoning (Davies, 2001.
Dolan et al.
, 2.
This process involves a signiAcant intersection of three disciplinary perspectives, including philosophy, musicology, and psychology.
Philosophically, expressive classical performance is considered a manifestation of authenticity and the ontology of musical works, wherein the composer and performer engage in shared aesthetic and artistic dimensions (Agawu, 2025.
Levinson, 2.
From a musicological perspective, the musical score has long been the primary site of meaning in traditional expressive performance in Western classical music.
However, recent scholarship has repositioned Western classical music performance as a form of knowledge creation (Borio et al.
, 2.
In this context.
Duby .
deAnes expressive music performance as a dynamic event in which the performer's interpretation transforms the musical blueprint into an acoustic reality, rather than merely a replication of a score.
While in music psychology, expressive performance in Western classical music relies on performers' interpretive choices and on expressive musical terms (Gabrielsson, 1988.
Lerch et al.
, 2020.
Repp, 1.
The convergence of these three Aelds centres on the fundamental inquiry of how interpretive meaning is manifested and conveyed through the expressiveness of musical performance.
Fabian .
Mazzola .
and Kopiez .
state that an initial examination of the expressive performance in Western classical music, based on performance recordings, reveals two distinct and seemingly unrelated threads.
One thread is empirical research, typically exempliAed by Carl Seashore's agogic measurements.
the same time, the other is philosophical research, which deals with metaphorical description and tends to reCect normative thinking, as seen in Wintle.
In the Analysis and Performance of Webern's concerto op.
24/ii and the Analysis and Performance of Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno (Adorno & Lonitz, 2.
In deAning expressive performance of Western classical music based on performance recording, the philosophical approach examines the qualitative dimensions, exploring the thoughts that can be conveyed through performance, speciAcally the semantic content of expressivity.
In this perspective, the expressiveness of music performance was dependent on subjective music criticism or phenomenological description.
(Cumming, 2.
This results in Andings being heavily reliant on individual perceptions, which can vary between listeners and viewers.
This raises questions about objectivity and reproducibility, especially in the context of scientiAc inquiry.
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In contrast, empirical research focuses on the quantitative dimensions of performance, providing numerical speciAcations for all parameters necessary to characterize its structure.
The development of computational-based music analysis now facilitates the objective, quantitative assessment of performance parameters by means of the systematic extraction and comparison of acoustic data from recordings.
(Bouzioti, 2023.
Canazza & Poli, 2019.
De Poli, 2022.
Johanis, 2.
This conceptual development is in accordance with Taruskin's .
statement that a study in practice of performance is, ideally, an attempt to reconcile the discrepancy between the content of the old musical texts that have survived and the actual sound of typical contemporary performances, using documentary or statistical evidence.
This thereby transitions performance studies from interpretive discourse to measurable analysis.
Empirical studies on performance, particularly those focused on computer-based music performance analysis, reveal how tempo variation, rhythmic Cexibility, and dynamic shaping distinguish individual performers and historical performance These include recorded performances on the piano.
(Bragagnolo & Guigue.
Cook, 2020.
Farny, 2024.
Kosta et al.
, 2018.
Simonetta, 2022.
Ueda, 2021.
Zhou, 2.
, choral and vocal (Hauck, 2020.
Leech-Wilkinson, 2.
, harpsichord performance (Koren & Gingras, 2.
, as well as orchestra, choir, and soloists (D'Orazio, 2.
, and violin (Fabian, 2015, 2017a, 2017b.
Fabian & Schubert, 2009.
Sung & Fabian, 2.
Previous studies demonstrate that comparing recordings is, in fact, an excellent method of revealing and celebrating the incredible diversity of interpretations and personae revealed by the archive of recordings (Rutherford-Johnson, 2017.
Scheirer.
Shapovalova et al.
, 2.
Computational performance analysis provides a methodological bridge across philosophical, musicological, and psychological approaches to interpretation.
Computer-based analysis transforms expressive nuance in the form of dynamic shaping and tempo Cuctuation into quantiAable data, thereby identifying and examining interpretative phenomena (Cannam et al.
, 2010a.
De Poli.
Despite the instrument's rich twentieth-century recorded tradition, it has signiAcantly inCuenced perceptions of the classical guitar and its repertoire throughout the 20th century, as exempliAed by Andrys Segovia.
Julian Bream, and their successors.
(Marrington, 2.
There are only two computational studies that address guitar performance through computational-based recording.
Freire et al.
examined right-hand techniques, while Freire and Cambraia .
Developed texture descriptors.
Neither study conducted comparative tempo analysis across multiple recordingsAiprevious work by Freire et al.
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Cambraia .
Focused primarily on isolated technical or textural parameters without comparing interpretative variance among major performers.
The structure of the harmonic language of Villa-Lobos' Etude No.
1 is essential for explaining expressive phenomena that exist in dealing with expressive timing and tempo variance.
Since mechanical, regular arpeggio movements shape the pattern of this etude.
The prior research on expressive timing (Fabian, 2015.
Zhou & Fabian, 2.
has concentrated on piano and violin, providing models for quantifying tempo and dynamic patterns but rarely addressing plucked-string instruments.
Consequently, the Aeld lacks a systematic understanding of how classical guitarists translate the notated rigor of Villa-Lobos's music into diverse expressive realizations.
This absence of a comparative, data-driven study represents a signiAcant gap in deAning an interpretative expression of music performance research in classical This study presents a performance recording of Villa-Lobos' Etude No.
1, focusing on the extraction of expressive elements in musical performances through visual and audio analysis, which compares six important Agures of classical guitar performers.
The analysis focuses on recordings made between 1961 and 2009 by six seminal guitarists: Andrys Segovia.
Christopher Parkening.
Julian Bream.
Narciso Yepes.
Pepe Romero, and Ana VidoviN.
These performers were selected as representatives of various pedagogical and stylistic lineages.
The central research question guiding this investigation is: Do these landmark recordings exhibit systematic differences in basic tempo and in patterns of global and local tempo variation? This study posits research hypotheses indicating that the treatment of tempo, covering the selection of a base tempo, the range of tempo variations, and the characteristics of rhythmic deviations, will unveil unique performer-speciAc signatures.
Literature Review Etude No.
1 is characterised predominantly by continuous arpeggiated motion as shown in Figure 1.
The examination of expressive timing and tempo variance in performers' recordings of Villa-Lobos's Etude No.
1 is an interesting way to deAne expressive phenomena.
Minor tempo variations of this etude signiAcantly affect the apparent contour and nature of the individual expressions.
Since it captures the very dimension where musical meaning, interpretation, and technical identity intersect.
Western classical performance, the notated text provides structural and rhythmic however, what distinguishes one interpretation from another lies in the performer's manipulation of temporal Cow, such as the subtle stretching, compression, or stabilization of tempo.
(Fabian & Ornoy, 2009.
Gabrielsson, 1988.
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Repp, 1.
In this context, these temporal Cuctuations are intentional expressive actions that convey phrase, emotion, and personality.
Figure 1.
Max Eschig's Publication of 1953 of VillaLobos' Etude No.
Villa Lobos' Etude No.
1 is widely regarded as a crucial milestone for classical (Canellas, 2016.
Dragomir, 2021.
Navia, 2020.
Salles, 2.
The arpeggio pattern of etude no.
1 is inCuenced in the same spirit as those of the Prelude in C major or the Little Prelude from Bach's "Well-tempered Clavier.
The collection of Heitor VillaLobos's Twelve Etudes for Guitar, composed between 1924 and 1929, reveals that some of its concepts and overarching themes were conceived by the composer signiAcantly earlier.
(Ciraldo, 2007.
Fraga, 1996.
Santos, 1.
The Twelve Studies were published by Max Eschig Editions in Paris in 1953, as illustrated in Figure 1, accompanied by a dedication to the Spanish virtuoso Andres Segovia, who also contributed the foreword.
Technically, the arpeggios' lines are indicated with the mechanism's right-hand Etude No.
1 shows sophisticated ways of moving from one position to another, using different kinds of chords.
The examination of Villa Lobos' Etude No.
reveals a combination of linear movement in the right hand and non-linear connections in the harmony.
The linear right-hand movement sections are denoted by arpeggio motion.
Meanwhile, the non-linear harmonious linkages are portrayed through a diverse range of tonalities.
In each composition by Villa Lobos, the guitar's inherent qualities, both in terms of its physical characteristics and its characteristic style, serve as a foundation for a variety of melodic, harmonic, and textural elements.
(Navia, 2.
Villa Lobos' Etude No.
1 features two distinct arpeggio patterns inside each chordal texture as illustrated in Figure 2.
The ascending low-pitch movements indicate the Arst arpeggio patterns.
The Arst arpeggios pattern is executed by combining p-i, p-i, p-m, i-a, where the distance between two strings is crossed by one Page 365 Djahwasi, et.
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Meanwhile, the second arpeggio pattern is indicated by the descending lowpitched movements.
The second arpeggio pattern is played by combining m-a, i-m, p-i, which are two strings in sequence.
Figure 2: Arpeggio patterns Villa Lobos' Etude No.
Two open strings "e" .
st, sixt.
pulsate continuously on bars 12 to 22 as illustrated in Figure 3, forming a bass line that withstands the pedalAia strong organ According to Filatova .
, the chords' movements on bars 12 to 22 show the foundation, passages from diminished seventh chords, recognized as the most expressive harmonies of that era, are layered with increasing intensity.
The chord movements are systematically shifted along the fretboard in semitones, transitioning from the 10th fret to the 1st without any gaps or interruptions.
The repetition of each step in the chromatic sequential movements occurs twice, thereby extending and amplifying the phase of expression.
The open Arst and sixth strings function as a chord tone in this section, subsequently serving as a linear ornamental-Agurative The musical architecture of bars 12-22 is expressly designed to challenge simple metronomic regularity.
The role of the open strings introduces an additional dimension of localized tempo variation, thereby complicating the determination of a consistent, overarching tempo.
The combination of a static drone in the form of a highly expressive harmonic sequence and shifting textures makes this section a crucible for expressive timing, and consequently, a signiAcant challenge for determining a single, consistent tempo.
Figure 3: Diminished chord movements of Villa Lobos' Etude No.
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Previous studies of Villa-Lobos's Etude No.
1 have examined its historical and biographical context, situating it within Villa-Lobos's legacy.
(Fraga, 1996.
Santos.
Yates, 1.
, as well as its formal structure, harmonic language, and symmetrical design principles (Canellas, 2016.
Dragomir, 2021.
Navia, 2.
, in addition to its technical execution.
Angering techniques, and practice methodology for arpeggio patterns and positional transitions (Carlevaro, 1988.
Joyce, 2.
However, these previous studies share a critical limitation.
In this respect, all focus exclusively on the notated score, treating Villa-Lobos' Etude No.
1 as a compositional text rather than a performed phenomenon.
No study examines how the work's technical and expressive demands manifest in actual recorded performances, nor whether performers' interpretive strategies converge or diverge when confronting identical compositional challenges.
This analytical gap has practical signiAcance when considering Carlevaro's .
the assertion that Etude No.
1's mechanical importance lies in executing repeated arpeggios with constant right-hand angle position.
Carlevaro's technical remark implicitly poses important questions.
How do virtuosos implement tempo modiAcation as an expressive choice? Gabrielsson .
Establishes that timing in music performance extends beyond mechanical execution to perceptual and expressive dimensions, while Gingras et al.
Demonstrate that timing differences constitute primary markers of performer identity.
Although these principles were established through piano and violin studies, no research has examined whether they apply to the guitar performance of Villa-Lobos' repertoire.
Methods This study employs a computationalAeempirical design to examine expressive timing and intensity variation in six professional recordings of Heitor Villa-Lobos's Etude No.
for solo guitar.
The objective is to quantify interpretative diversity through measurable parameters of tempo and dynamics using standardized digital audio analysis.
The methodology is structured in three phases: .
data collection and preprocessing, .
computational extraction of musical parameters, and .
statistical and comparative The design ensures transparency, reproducibility, and cross-veriAcation with score-based reference points.
For reproducibility and reliability purposes, the public Zenodo repository containing raw/processed data, as well as code, can be found at https://zenodo.
org/records/17559333.
The previous studies show that performance parameters can be systematically categorized into the fundamental aspects that characterize musical audio in the form of tempo and timing (Bowen, 1996.
Desain & Honing, 1994.
Dodson, 2011.
Fabian.
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Honing, 2001, 2013.
Leech-Wilkinson, 2015.
Repp, 1990, 1995, 1998.
Spiro et , 2016.
Sung & Fabian, 2.
, pitch(Beauchamp et al.
, 1993.
Fabian & Ornoy, 2009.
Giraldo et al.
, 2019.
Leech-Wilkinson, 2015.
Nakamura et al.
, 2018.
Pati et al.
, 2.
dynamics (Cheng & Chew, 2008.
Clarke, 1998.
Cook, 2009.
Kosta et al.
, 2.
and timbre (Holmes, 2012.
McAdams, 2019.
Skyld, 2022.
Vogels, 2.
A substantial amount of research emphasizes the use of an exploratory method for analyzing performance recordings and detailing performance characteristics, such as tempo polarization.
Deviations in tempo, timing, and dynamics are considered some of the most salient performance parameters and, therefore, have been the focus of various studies in music performance analysis using computer analytical tools.
(Lerch et al.
, 2020.
Palmer, 1997.
Povel, 1977.
Repp, 1990, 1992, 1995, 1998, 1999.
Shaffer, 1984.
Zhou & Fabian, 2.
Studies of this nature generally focus on extracting speciAc characteristics, including the tempo curve or histogram.
(Palmer.
Povel, 1977.
Repp, 1990.
Srinivasamurthy et al.
, 2.
and the loudness curve (Repp, 1998.
Seashore, 2.
From audio recordings.
This study was designed to collect, process, and analyze data on musical expressive timing, as illustrated in Figure Figure 4: Musical Expressive Timing Design This study utilizes a systematic and data-driven methodology to analyze musical expressive timing in classical guitar performance.
The strength of this methodology lies in its dual-layered structure, which effectively combines structured and unstructured expressive timing.
The structured expressive timing is conducted based on tempo indications found in the score and established interpretative models.
At the same time, the unstructured component recognizes tempo variations and expressive Cuctuations that extend beyond the notated score.
This facilitates a detailed comprehension of interpretative individuality.
Additionally, the study utilizes tempo curves to identify both micro- and macro-expressive deviations, providing measurable insights into the interpretation of performance.
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performance variations.
Current computational models of expressive timing, such as those proposed by Clarke .
Gabrielsson, .
Honing, .
Shi .
and Ueda .
focus predominantly on elucidating tempo variations.
Their companies utilize tempo curves, which represent tempo or its reciprocal, duration as a function of score position, as their foundational framework.
In deAning musical expression, this study involves a critical examination of tempo, with a speciAc focus on the discrepancies between written scores and recorded performances.
This study was designed to identify expressive timing, encompassing both structured and unstructured musical expressions of timing.
Theoretically, the structure of musical expressive timing is shaped by the relation between musical practice and notation (Desain & Honing, 1994.
Honing, 2001, 2013.
Quinn & Watt.
Meanwhile, unstructured musical expressive timing is deAned as alterations of tempo and rhythm that are not directly related to the score but affect more local aspects of temporal relationships between notes, also occurring during the performance of a work (Timmers et al.
, 2.
Mazzola .
states that musical practice and notation classify structured musical expressive timing in three distinct manners: absolute tempo signs, exempliAed by Maelzel's metronomic notation.
relative punctual tempo signs, including fermata and general pause.
and relative local tempo signs, which encompass broader indications such as ritardando, rallentando, and accelerando.
Structured musical expressive timing of this study was adopted by a taxonomical model of tempo and variation by (Zhou & Fabian, 2.
This model presents a clear and precise taxonomy aimed at analyzing the similarities and differences in performers' styles regarding tempo and its variations.
This model delineates six variables that correspond to three distinct dimensions of tempo and its variation: basic tempo, global tempo variation, and local tempo variation.
Global tempo variation involves organizing the hierarchical structure of a composition at the phrase or section level, characterized as large-scale or macro variation, such as ritardando, rallentando, and accelerando, as well as sectional Cexibility.
In contrast, local tempo variation refers to the lengthening or shortening of beats or notes within a gesture, typically for expressive reasons.
It occurs at the bar, beat, or note level, thus representing Zhou & Fabian .
determine local tempo variation, which is referred to variously as rhetorical tempo change (Cook, 2.
, small-scale tempo change (Bowen, 1.
, localized rubato (Fabian, 2.
or agogics (Thiemel, 2.
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criteria for evaluation (Marrington, 2.
Andrys Segovia played a crucial role in bringing Villa Lobos' Etude No.
1 to a broader audience, (Achondo, 2024.
Djahwasi et al.
Segal, 1.
Thus, making Villa Lobos' Etude No.
1 one of the standard concert In this study, data were collected from performances by six prominent classical guitarists, including Andrys Segovia.
Narciso Yepes.
Julian Bream.
Pepe Romero.
Christopher Parkening, and Ana VidoviN.
The performers are widely regarded as seminal Agures in the history of the classical guitar.
They represent distinct pedagogical lineages, stylistic approaches, and historical periods, providing a rich dataset for comparative analysis.
The primary data for this study consist of six audio recordings of Heitor VillaLobos's yOtude No.
1, sourced from the publicly accessible YouTube platform.
The use of these copyrighted recordings for analytical purposes is warranted under the principle of fair use or fair dealing in alternative jurisdictions.
The study's objective is noncommercial, educational, and transformative in nature.
In other words, the recordings are used as raw data for academic inquiry and analysis, rather than for reproduction.
The analysis focuses on extracting quantitative data .
empo and dynamic informatio.
rather than replicating the aesthetic experience of the original All sources are clearly referenced to ensure complete attribution to the performers, publishers, and original broadcasters.
The information presented in Table 1 outlines every source of data along with the corresponding recording years for each Table 1: Source of data No.
Name Andrys Segovia Sources of data https://w.
com/watch?v=eSluP6TiWBw Recording years Guitar recital at Nymphenburg Palace.
Munich, 1961.
Christopher Parkening https://w.
com/watch?v=_-24c3EEv0E Julian Bream Narciso Yepes https://w.
com/watch?v=Xfekt-TN-tw https://w.
com/watch?v=XdhO-vvrco4 Pepe Romero https://w.
com/watch?v=dxJ725jcz8o Ana VidoviN https://w.
com/watch?v=O7WIwdnVdoA Live performance at WCBS/TV Studios.
New York, 1971.
BMG Music 1978.
a recital at the Palau Royal of Madrid in Universal International Music Ocean Way Studios.
Nashville, 2009.
The recordings were sourced from a publicly accessible platform to ensure that the study's methodology is transparent and its results are, in principle, replicable by other researchers.
All performers are playing from the standard 1929 Max Eschig edition of the work or a subsequent version with minimal editorial variance.
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minor differences in articulation or dynamic markings may exist between editions, they are considered unlikely to systematically affect the macro-level expressive parameters of tempo and dynamics investigated in this study.
In most forms of Western music, timing is articulated through a .
uasi-)regular pulse, with the beats serving as reference points from which all other timing is Time is the perception of expressive movement in music performance (Davidson, 1991.
Shove & Repp, 1.
Tempo is a factor that is often linked to the expressive quality of a musical composition (Di Stefano, 2023.
Doantan-Dack, 2.
Composers frequently specify the tempo of a musical composition by employing numerical markings .
n beats per minut.
alongside subjective terms, such as adagio and allegro (Quinn & Watt, 2.
Musical time encompasses the rate of the pulse, known as tempo, and the positioning of individual notes in relation to that pulse, referred to as timing.
Expressive effects arise from the manipulation of notes through lengthening, shortening, delaying, or anticipating them in relation to their expected timing and duration dictated by the prevailing pulse (Dixon, 2.
The aspect of time representation known as tempo serves as the reciprocal of durations, contingent upon the position within the score (Solomonova et al.
, 2.
Traditionally, it is quantiAed using a metronome (M.
) number that speciAes the number of beats per minute .
during performance time.
Analysis by measurement aims to identify regularities in deviation patterns and describe them using a mathematical model, relating scores to expressive values (Gabrielsson, 1999.
Goebl et al.
, 2008.
Sundberg, 1993.
Zanon & Poli, 2.
The primary goal of this investigation was to quantify and compare the expressive elements of tempo and intensity across six virtuoso recordings of Villa-Lobos' Etude No.
The methodology is structured to ensure high data Adelity, a replicable computational workCow, and to address the need for transparency in data provenance and analytical parameters.
The six performances analyzed were sourced from publicly accessible video recordings available on the YouTube platform, as shown in Table 1 .
ideo link.
The use of these speciAc, widely cited recordings was deemed necessary to conduct a comparative study of the most inCuential interpretations, many of which lack commercially available digital masters.
To mitigate the risks associated with these sources and establish scientiAc validity, a rigorous post-acquisition processing protocol was implemented, which includes provenance documentation, audio extraction, homogenization of bit depth and sampling rate, and acoustic To mitigate algorithmic bias and ensure input signal consistency for Sonic Visualizer, all sourced audio was Arst technically homogenized.
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converted to monaural .
ingle channe.
, a standardized 44.
1 kHz sample rate, and 16bit depth using a standard command-line utility .
r standard audio softwar.
This step ensures input consistency for subsequent beat-tracking algorithms.
Figure 5.
Standardize all audio output before audio analysis To prevent variations in recording amplitude from biasing onset detection, all homogenized tracks were imported into Logic Pro .
using a digital audio Each Ale was then normalized to a consistent integrated loudness target of -11 LUFS (Loudness Units Full Scal.
This process ensures that all performance Ales initiate the computational analysis pipeline at an equivalent perceived volume level, which is crucial for consistent onset and beat detection.
Figure 6.
Normalization of audio Page 372 Djahwasi, et.
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Figure 7.
Processing protocol for audio analysis Despite the limitations of fully automatic onset and beat detection, particularly in the context of classical music characterized by subtle onsets and Cuctuating beat patterns, it is advisable to utilize semi-automatic annotation methods to achieve more dependable outcomes .
e Clercq, 2023.
Guichaoua et al.
, 2024.
Konz et al.
, 2009.
Scheirer, 2.
In examining Etude No.
1, which is primarily deAned by its continuous arpeggiated motion within a static beat pattern, the application of fully automatic onset and beat detection through visual tools (Franklin, 2023.
Morooanu et al.
, 2.
Sonic Visualizer is considered suitable for this analysis.
Each recording was manually segmented and time-stamped using a canonical edition of the score as a reference.
This process isolated the performance data strictly to the musical content of Etude No.
1, ensuring that all analyses refer to the same measure-to-measure structural points.
The computational workCow was executed using specialized software to extract and quantify musical parameters.
Table 2: Software and version Parameter Extracted Audio Visualization & Segmentation Software Tool Sonic Visualizer Version Purpose Score event marking, and data annotation.
Automatic beat tracking and Inter Onset-Interval (IOI) Tempo (IOI) Aubio Beat Tracker (Sonic Visualizer Plugi.
Intensity Intensity (Sonic Visualizer Built -in RMS Powe.
Loudness curve extraction in decibels.
B) Statistical Processing Microsoft Excel Calculation of descriptive statistics .
in, max, variance.
Processing Peak Picker Threshold: 0.
Silence Threshold:
Audio frames per block: 1024 Window increment: 512 Window size:
1024 samples Window 1024 samples Poli .
Highlights a crucial challenge in the development of informationprocessing models that rely on performance recording and the need to clearly deAne the type of information to be addressed and the methods for its representation on a Tempo and timing data for any version of a performer's recording can be Page 373 Djahwasi, et.
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acquired through software tools, such as Sonic Visualizer (Cannam et al.
, 2010.
Cook & Leech-Wilkinson, 2009.
Leech-Wilkinson, 2.
, which are designed to identify note The tempo and intensity level of this study are visualized using the Sonic Visualizer software.
Developed by Queen Mary.
University of London.
Sonic Visualizer is a program speciAcally designed for analysing recordings.
According to Cook & LeechWilkinson .
Sonic Visualizer is one of the best ways to explore the details of recordings by using simple computer-based techniques across multiple recordings.
Sonic visualizer-based investigations in the latest study were found in the study of Mazurkabl: score-aligned loudness, beat, and expressive markings data for 2000 Chopin mazurka recordings(Kosta et al.
, 2.
Text articulation and musical articulation in choral performance: a case study (Hauck, 2.
Performance analysis and Chopin's mazurkas (Cook, 2.
Analysis of sonority in piano pieces: a performance-based approach (Bragagnolo & Guigue, 2.
Tempo Rubato as Rhetorical Means: An Analysis of the Performance of Chopin's Nocturne Op.
15-2 by Camille Saint-Sayns 1905 (Ueda, 2.
In order to generate the comparative data, a computational workCow utilized the aubio library .
ith a 1024-sample window and specifying onset detectio.
to calculate IOI tempo, simultaneously extracted intensity via RMS with a 500ms smoothing Alter, and Anally employed Dynamic Time Warping to align the resulting expressive curves for measure-by-measure statistical analysis.
The normalized and time-aligned tempo (BPM) and intensity .
B) data were exported as .
csv Ales for statistical analysis in Excel.
The following table details the operational deAnition and quantitative threshold used to distinguish between global and localized expressive timing in the performances:
Table 3: Operationalizing Structured and Unstructured Timings Timing category Unstructured timing .
lobal temp.
DeAnition Large-scale, longduration tempo changes .
spanning multiple phrases or sections.
Operational metric Overall Mean Tempo (BPM) and Total Range (Max BPM - Min BPM).
Quantitative threshold Sustained tempo deviation for A 4 Structured timing .
icro-level deviatio.
Localized.
Anegrained tempo deviations are used to articulate structural features .
Local Tempo Variance ( 2 ) in BPM, computed over rolling 2-measure windows.
Local tempo variance ( 2 ) of A 0.
5 BPM2
within a 2-measure The selection of a 0.
5 BPMA threshold for detecting localized tempo variation over a 2-bar rolling window is grounded in established analytical conventions that employ squared deviation metrics to quantify expressive nuance (Bowen, 1996.
de Clercq.
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Repp, 1.
While the Aeld lacks a universally codiAed threshold, this study reinforces the methodological validity of the chosen value through a targeted sensitivity analysis.
By systematically adjusting the threshold within a A20% range .
4Ae0.
6 BPMA), it was demonstrated that key interpretive groupings and expressive timing classiAcations remained consistently intact.
This empirical stability substantiates the reliability of the threshold and aligns with best practices in performance analysis, where robustness testing is essential to ensure analytical resilience and mitigate parameter bias (De Poli, 2022.
Gabrielsson, 1999b.
Giraldo et , 2.
Descriptive statistical analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel to characterize and compare the performance data: .
Central Tendency and Duration:
The Total Duration .
n second.
was measured.
The overall mean tempo .
n beats per minute.
BPM) and mean intensity .
n decibels, dB) were calculated for each The maximum and minimum values were used to determine the total dynamic range and tempo Cexibility used by each performer.
Dispersion: The Figure 8.
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The Aubio Beat Tracker plugin was used to provide a reliable, global tempo estimate for each recording.
Figure 9.
Tempo and beat tracker plugin parameter The Tempo and Beat Tracker plugin was then explicitly employed for its Onset Detection Function (ODF) capabilities, which locate the precise temporal positions of note attacks.
For reproducibility, the following key parameters were applied during this extraction process: The Onset Detection Function (ODF) utilized was the Complex Domain, with the use of the mean of source channels, a window size of 1024, and a window increment of 512.
Contrary to standard algorithmic approaches, such as Dynamic Time Warping (DTW), which can mask performer-speciAc rhythmic inCections, the six performances were manually aligned to the score's structural This manual alignment was achieved by placing timestamp anchors in Sonic Visualizer at all bar lines (Measures 1 through .
and at all critical tempo changes or fermatas indicated in the score.
This precise manual mapping ensures a robust correspondence between the time-series data .
erformance event.
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formal structure .
ar indice.
, allowing for direct comparison of tempo across performers relative to speciAc notated moments.
Results Table 4 presents the recording statistics of six virtuoso classical guitarists: Andres Segovia.
Christopher Parkening.
Pepe Romero.
Ana Vidovic.
Julian Bream, and Narciso Yepes, including duration, tempo, and intensity.
Meanwhile, the comparison between tempo and duration of each performer is illustrated in Figure 6.
Table 4: The recording statistics of six virtuoso classical Table 5: The Statistical Descriptors of Tempo and Intensity Performance Duration .
Tempo .
Christopher Parkening Pepe Romero Average Intensity .
B) Min Max Average Min Max Ana Vidovic Andres Segovia Julian Bream Narciso Yepes Performer Duration .
Range CV (%) Intensity .
B) Mean Range Christopher Parkening Tempo .
Mean Pepe Romero Ana VidoviN Andrys Segovia Julian Bream Narciso Yepes Page 377 Djahwasi, et.
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Table 6: Global Mean Tempo and 95% ConAdence Intervals Mean Tempo (BPM) SD (BPM) N .
ars OO .
95% CI Christopher Parkening Performer 0 Ae 123.
Pepe Romero 1 Ae 132.
Ana VidoviN 2 Ae 134.
Andrys Segovia 0 Ae 145.
Julian Bream 7 Ae 142.
Narciso Yepes 0 Ae 132.
Figure 10.
The comparison between the tempo and the duration of each performer An examination of Andres Segovia's recording indicates that the basic tempo, as shown in Figure 11, is derived from a range of numbers that is close to the average tempo spans at 138.
08 BPM, which is indicated on bars 3 to 7 and bars 16 to 3.
Within this range, the tempo ranges from a minimum of 112.
84 BPM to a maximum of 187.
BPM.
Both the minimum and maximum tempos are indicated as unstructured musical expression timing.
The examination reveals that the intensity averages at 6.
52 dB, with a recorded minimum of 4.
01 dB and a peak value of 8.
50 dB.
The tempo curve features a nuanced tempo change that occurs between bars 10 and 14, which is characterized by a relatively steady level of intensity.
Andrys Segovia's performance begins at a notably brisk tempo, marked by a subtle level of intensity.
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Figure 11.
The musical expressive timing and intensity level of Andres Segovia's Structure Musical Expression Timing Unstructured Musical Expression Timing Basic Tempo (Global tempo variatio.
Basic Tempo An examination of the musical expressive timing in Perkening's recording reveals that the basic tempo, as illustrated in Figure 12, is derived from a range of numbers closely approximating the average tempo span at 124.
13 BPM, as indicated on bars 9 to 31.
Within this range, the tempo exhibits a minimum of 113.
17 BPM, which is indicated as unstructured musical expression timing on bars 4-5.
The tempo reaches a maximum of 149.
26 BPM, which is indicated as a structured musical expression timing .
lobal tempo variatio.
on bars 32 to the end.
The examination reveals that the intensity averages at 6.
59 dB, with a recorded minimum of 0.
31 dB and a peak value of 77 dB.
The tempo curve exhibits three notable tempo changes, which occur between bars 1 and 8, bars 9 and 31, and bars 31 and the end.
The two notable tempo changes are intricately linked to the variations in sound intensity levels.
The Perkening's performance begins at an exceptionally rapid tempo.
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Figure 12.
The musical expressive timing and intensity level of Christopher Perkening's Unstructured Musical Expression Timing Structure Musical Expression Timing (Global tempo Basic Tempo An examination of the musical expressive timing in Pepe Romero's recording reveals that the basic tempo, as shown in Figure 13, is derived from a range of numbers close to the average tempo span at 126.
19 BPM, which is indicated in bars 4 to 9 and bars 19 to the end.
This analysis further examines both the minimum tempo, at 111.
BPM, on bars 10-18, and the maximum tempo, reaching 175.
09 BPM, on bars 10-18.
Both the minimum and maximum tempo are indicated as unstructured musical expression timing.
The analysis indicates that the average intensity stands at 6.
13 dB, while the lowest measurement recorded is 2.
32 dB, and the highest peaks are at 8.
The tempo curve features a nuanced tempo change that occurs between bars 10 and 18, which is characterized by a relatively steady level of intensity.
Pepe Romero's performance begins at a notably brisk tempo, marked by a signiAcant degree of Page 380 Djahwasi, et.
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Figure 13.
The musical expressive timing and intensity level of Pepe Romero's recording Unstructured Musical Expression Timing Unstructured Musical Expression Timing Basic Tempo Basic Tempo An examination of the musical expressive timing in Ana Vidovic's recording reveals that the basic tempo, as shown in Figure 14, is derived from a range of numbers close to the average tempo span of 130.
60 BPM, which begins at bars 24-31.
This analysis further identiAes a minimum tempo of 109.
89 BPM, which is indicated as structural musical expression timing .
lobal tempo variatio.
on bars 32 to the end.
Meanwhile, the maximum tempo reached 154.
16 BPM, indicating an unstructured musical expression in terms of timing.
The analysis indicates that the average intensity stands at 6.
92 dB, while the lowest measurement recorded is 3.
01 dB, and the highest peaks at 10.
76 dB.
The tempo curve exhibits numerous notable tempo changes, and the basic tempo remains relatively constant from bar 24 onwards.
Bars 1-6 indicate that the tempo tends to increase gradually.
Therefore, bars 7 to 11 illustrate that the tempo is changing to a slower pace.
Moreover, bars 7 to 11 illustrate that the tempo is changing to a slower pace.
The situation where the tempo changes become slower also occurs in bars 14 to 15, and bars 18 to 20.
The notable tempo changes are intricately linked to the variations in sound intensity levels.
The Vidovic's performance begins at a notably brisk tempo.
The performance of Ana Vidovic commences at a deliberate tempo, characterized by a subtle level of intensity.
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Figure 14.
The musical expressive timing and intensity level of Ana Vidovic's recording Unstructured Musical Expression Timing Structure Musical Expression Timing tempo variatio.
(Global Basic Tempo An examination of the musical expressive timing in Julian Bream's recording reveals that the basic tempo, as shown in Figure 15, is derived from a range of numbers close to the average tempo span at 135.
66 BPM, as indicated on bars 9 to 12 and bars 19 to the end.
Within this range, the tempo ranges from a minimum of 112.
60 BPM to a maximum of 184.
39 BPM.
Both the minimum and maximum tempo are indicated as unstructured musical expression timing.
The examination reveals that the intensity averages at 7.
31 dB, with a recorded minimum of 2.
7 dB and a peak value of 10.
62 dB.
Julian Bream's performance begins at an exceptionally rapid tempo, marked by a subtle level of intensity.
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Figure 15.
The musical expressive timing and intensity level of Julian Bream's recording Unstructured Musical Expression Timing Unstructured Musical Expression Timing Basic Tempo Basic Tempo An examination of the musical expressive timing in Narciso Yepes' recording reveals that the basic tempo, as shown in Figure 16, is derived from a range of numbers that is close to the average tempo span at 129.
44 BPM.
This analysis further identiAes a minimum tempo of 124.
61 BPM, deAned as the basic tempo, which is considered close to the average tempo span.
Meanwhile, the maximum tempo, reaching 161.
85 BPM,
indicated a lack of structured musical expression in timing.
The analysis indicates that the average intensity stands at 8.
11 dB, while the lowest measurement recorded is 68 dB, and the highest peaks at 10.
85 dB.
The tempo curve features a nuanced tempo change that occurs between bars 1 and 6, which is characterized by a relatively steady level of intensity.
The Narciso Yepes' performance begins at a notably brisk tempo, marked by a subtle level of intensity.
Global tempo variation, as characterized by Yepes, involves an increase in the basic tempo.
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Figure 16.
The musical expressive timing and intensity level of Narciso Yepes' recording Structure Musical Expression Timing (Global tempo variatio.
Unstructured Musical Expression Timing Basic Tempo Pearson co rrelation coefAcients .
were computed between bar-level mean tempo values of all six performers (N = 34 bar.
A full correlation matrix is provided in Table 7 .
empo correlation matri.
and Table 8 .
ntensity correlation matri.
, which present inter-performer relationships for tempo (BPM) and intensity .
B) across the 34-bar SigniAcance was assessed at p < 0.
wo-taile.
The correlation analysis quantiAes stylistic similarity, where high positive r-values indicate parallel expressive timing behavior.
Table 7: Pearson Correlation Matrix for Tempo (BPM) Across Performers (N = 34 bar.
VidoviN Parkening Romero Bream Segovia Yepes VidoviN Performer Parkening Romero Bream Segovia Yepes The correlation analysis of tempo (BPM) across the six performers reveals distinct expressive alignments and stylistic contrasts.
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performer similarity is observed between Ana VidoviN and Christopher Parkening .
= .
, indicating a shared approach to metrical stability and a restrained use of rubato.
Both performers display a controlled pacing that balances structural coherence with subtle expressive nuance, suggesting an interpretive preference for clarity over Cuctuation.
A moderate correlation is found between Julian Bream and Andrys Segovia .
= 0.
, reCecting their comparable Romantic phrasing and Cexible shaping of tempo contours.
Their interpretative choices emphasize the elasticity of phrasing and structural breathing characteristic of mid-twentieth-century expressive practice.
By contrast, the weakest correlation is observed between Segovia and Narciso Yepes .
= 0.
, demonstrating divergent stylistic approaches to temporal articulation.
Segovia's nuanced temporal elasticity contrasts sharply with Yepes's precision-driven tempo stability, underscoring differences in their interpretative philosophies.
Overall, the tempo correlation patterns highlight two overlapping stylistic clusters, which VidoviN and Parkening deAned by steady global tempo and balanced control, and Bream.
Segovia, and Romero distinguished by Romantic rubato shaping.
Yepes consistently deviates from both groups, reCecting his independent structural conception of tempo.
Table 8: Pearson Correlation Matrix for Intensity .
B) Across Performers (N = 34 bar.
VidoviN Parkening Romero Bream Segovia Yepes VidoviN Performer Parkening Romero Bream Segovia Yepes The intensity correlation results reinforce the expressive distinctions identiAed in the tempo analysis.
Ana VidoviN and Christopher Parkening again exhibit the strongest dynamic correlation .
= 0.
, demonstrating closely aligned phrasing and volume contouring.
Both performers manage dynamic gradations with measured restraint, favoring gradual intensity transitions that preserve structural coherence.
Their high level of correspondence suggests a shared interpretive orientation toward controlled expressivityAione that prioritizes tonal balance and proportional dynamic shaping over dramatic contrast.
In contrast.
Andrys Segovia and Narciso Yepes show the lowest dynamic correlation .
= 0.
47Ae0.
, reCecting highly individualized intensity proAles.
Segovia's phrasing is characterized by Cexible, phrase-dependent Cuctuations designed to heighten rhetorical expressivity, while Yepes's dynamic shaping is grounded in technical precision and linear projection.
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c o r re l a t i o n i n d i c a t e s f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e re n t p h i l o s o p h i e s o f t o n e productionAiSegovia employing dynamic nuance as an expressive extension of rubato, and Yepes maintaining analytical control and tonal evenness.
A ritardando is deAned quantitatively as a consistent negative slope of the tempo curve .
BPM/iba.
over the Anal three bars .
ars 32Ae.
, exceeding a minimum deceleration magnitude.
The following criterion aligns with perceptual thresholds identiAed in deviation metrics to quantify expressive nuance.
(Bowen, 1996.
de Clercq.
Repp, 1.
Where listeners detect deceleration of 2Ae4 BPM per beat/bar as expressive slowing.
Table 9: Estimated Tempo Slopes over Bars 32Ae34
Performer Tempo at Bar 31
(BPM)
OO120
Tempo at Bar 34
(BPM)
OO109
iTempo
(BPM)
Ae11 Slope (BPM/ba.
Ae3.
Christopher Parkening Pepe Romero
Julian Bream
OO117
OO146
Accelerates signiAcantly OO126
OO134
OO126
OO134
Stable Stable Andrys Segovia
OO148
OO136
Ae12 Ae4.
Narciso Yepes OO125
OO146
Marked ritardando .
Accelerates toward Ana VidoviN Ritardando Executed Marked ritardando .
In the closing section .
ars 32Ae.
, both Ana VidoviN (Ae3.
7 BPM/ba.
and Andrys Segovia (Ae4.
0 BPM/ba.
demonstrate a deliberate and perceptible deceleration that aligns precisely with the notated ritardando al Ane.
Their measured tempo reduction reCects a conscious application of structured global timing control, creating a sense of expressive repose and closure consistent with Romantic performance aesthetics.
Christopher Parkening and Narciso Yepes accelerate noticeably toward the cadence, emphasizing momentum and tonal drive rather than relaxation.
This acceleration projects a stylistic inclination toward energetic resolution, highlighting technical precision and structural clarity over rhetorical slowing.
Meanwhile.
Pepe Romero and Julian Bream sustain an almost constant tempo through the Anal bars, maintaining architectural coherence rather than employing overt expressive timing.
Their stability suggests an interpretive focus on harmonic completion and balance rather than emotional suspension.
Overall, the analysis conArms distinct performerspeciAc strategies: Segovia and VidoviN exemplify expressive Cexibility through controlled deceleration, whereas Parkening.
Yepes.
Romero, and Bream prioritize continuity and formal integrity over explicit tempo relaxation at the work's conclusion.
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Discussion This study hypothesized that virtuoso guitarists' treatment of Villa-Lobos' Etude No.
would reveal performer-speciAc signatures through measurable differences in basic tempo selection, range of tempo variations, and patterns of rhythmic deviation.
The data support this hypothesis across all three dimensions.
The Anding of this study demonstrates that virtuoso guitarists executing identical compositional material deploy measurably distinct expressive timing strategies, ranging from Segovia's extreme tempo Cexibility .
33 BPM, coefAcient of variation 19.
2%) to Yepes' relative stability .
85 BPM.
CV 8.
7%).
These quantitative differences reCect interpretive traditions, structural articulation strategies, and individual artistic identities that computational analysis can now objectively measure and compare.
In terms of basic tempo selection, tempo curve analysis revealed that all six performers maintained average tempos within the lower allegro range .
-138 BPM), consistent with the score's Allegro ma non troppo marking.
The term "Allegro ma non troppo means to fast but not excessively so, suggesting that a musical piece should be interpreted at a more moderate pace within the allegro spectrum (Kennedy & Kennedy, 2013.
Randel, 2.
Allegro, deAned by a BPM range of 120 to 168 (Fernyndez-Sotos et al.
, 2016.
Yang et al.
, 2.
It indicates that Allegro ma non troppo can be performed at the lower end of this range.
However, the coefAcient of variation (CV) analysis demonstrated substantial inter-performer differences.
Segovia exhibited the widest tempo range .
33 BPM.
CV 19.
2%), while Yepes demonstrated the narrowest .
85 BPM,
CV 8.
7%).
Parkening (CV 13.
1%).
Bream (CV 16.
8%).
Romero (CV 14.
2%), and VidoviN (CV 11.
5%) fell between these extremes.
These existing patterns of basic tempo selection support the hypothesis that performers would display unique tempo selection strategies.
The 74.
49 BPM maximum range difference and varying CVs conArm that identical compositional material elicits systematically different temporal The data shows that even when adhering to the general tempo marking of Allegro ma non troppo, these artists deployed fundamentally different approaches to temporal management.
This Anding demonstrates that expressive timing strategies can be quantiAed as distinct signatures.
The data indicate the emergence of three distinct patterns in tempo Initially.
Segovia.
Romero, and Yepes established a fundamental pace within measures 3-9, subsequently maintaining relatively narrow areas of deviation.
Secondly.
Parkening and Bream necessitated prolonged stabilization times .
p to bar .
, exhibiting more initial variability.
Thirdly.
VidoviN demonstrated the most gradual tempo establishment, attaining steadiness solely at bar 24.
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distinctive variation ranges was conArmed.
The data reveal a continuum from maximal expressivity (Segovia's 66% tempo rang.
to relative literalism (Yepes' 23% rang.
, suggesting that temporal Cexibility itself functions as an interpretive signature independent of average tempo choice.
The data reveal that this gap is an intrinsic feature of Western classical performance: the score provides a framework, but performers systematically reinterpret temporal instructions based on individual conceptions of musical structure, expressive rhetoric, and stylistic tradition.
The notable deviation from tempo observed through tempo curve analysis aligns with the statement of Taruskin .
That an investigation of performance practice should, ideally, strive to reconcile the discrepancies between the surviving historical musical texts and the auditory experiences of typical contemporary performances, grounded in documentary or statistical evidence, the polarization of tempo in this work demonstrates the essence of truth and authenticity in performance (Dodd, 2020.
Kivy, 1995.
Razumovskaya, 2.
which pertains to the persona, competence, approach, and style of the artist/artists during their performance (Kartomi, 2.
The tempo curve data in VillaLobos' Etude No.
1 reveals a notable discrepancy between the performance execution and the written score, indicating a substantial divergence.
What is the fundamental viewpoint when examining this reality? The subsequent inquiry is whether this phenomenon represents a conCict between Adelity and creativity (Godlovitch, 2.
, or as a disparity between the score and the sound (Djahwasi et al.
, 2.
It has been argued that detecting deviations from global tempi in real-time performances is highly developed in performers because of their exposure to playing (Meissner, 2021.
Repp, 1992.
Shove & Repp, 1.
Subsequent evidence indicated that the perceptual experience of temporal deviations is inCuenced by musical structure (Large et al.
, 2023.
Repp, 1.
Upon examining the intensity graph, it is essential to observe that all classical guitarists conclude Etude No.
1 by Villa Lobos with a noticeable decrease in intensity level in a gradual manner.
Julian Bream and Pepe Romero initiated the piece with considerable intensity, followed by subsequent modiAcations.
Ana Vidovic and Christopher Perkening initiated the piece with considerable intensity, followed by subsequent adjustments.
In contrast.
Narciso Yepes and Andrys Segovia consistently maintain the level of intensity throughout the entire piece.
The founding of this study reveal that even a single piece of music offers the possibility to be treated in several expressive ways, see (Rector, 2021.
Repp, 1.
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Conclusions The central research question guiding this investigation is: Do these landmark recordings exhibit systematic differences in basic tempo and in patterns of global and local tempo variation? The research gap indicates that "there are only two computational studies" on classical guitar playing to date, and "neither study performed comparative tempo analysis across multiple recordings.
" This study's Andings present a novel application of computational performance analysis to classical guitar, a Aeld that has experienced minimal exploration in this regard.
Prior to this research, computational musicology had predominantly concentrated on the piano, violin, and other instruments to investigate expressive timing and dynamics.
Theoretically, the Andings of this study align with the perspective presented by Cook .
One who suggested that musicologists of Western classical music and musicians alike would beneAt from thinking of scores not as Axed texts to be reproduced, but as scripts that guide performative interpretation.
The acoustic rendition of performance in Villa Lobos' Etude No.
1 is an integral part of a music performance that cannot be omitted.
Music, as a performing art, necessitates the presence of a performer or a collective of performers to transform a musical "blueprint" into an acoustic manifestation.
(Clarke, 2002.
Hill, 2.
The six chosen performers span recordings from 1961 to 2009, enabling the method to contribute to discussions on performance practice.
By quantifying tempo and intensity, one can infer how interpretation may have evolved or varied across different pedagogical lineages.
For instance, the study suggests clusters of interpretive proAles (Segovia/Bream/Romero vs.
Parkening/Yepes/VidoviN) that correspond to stylistic traditions.
This clustering of performers based on data is a novel insight enabled by the methodology's combination of computational analysis and musicological interpretation.
It indicates that the method is capable of capturing performer identities in data form, echoing claims in the literature that timing and dynamics are primary markers of performer identity.
Philosophically, the comparative analysis of six renowned guitarists allows for a contextual understanding of individual artistic choices in relation to broader stylistic trends.
In the methodological approaches, the key innovative aspect of this study is the operationalization of the expressive timing taxonomy.
The methodology distinguishes between "structured" and "unstructured" expressive timing variations, drawing on theoretical models by Desain & Honing.
Mazzola, and others.
In practice, structured timing refers to tempo variations that correlate with score indications or formal structural boundaries .
ike written ritardandi or section transition.
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the score.
By adopting the recent three-dimensional tempo model of Zhou & Fabian .
The method deAnes clear variables for basic tempo, global .
variation, and local .
This is an important conceptual contribution in deAning a expressive tempo in mechanical classical guitar works.
Since, the previous classical guitar analyses lacked a formal method for categorizing tempo nuances in this manner.
The study effectively shows how this taxonomy can be For example, it identiAes cases where performers follow or ignore a scoremarked ritardando .
global variatio.
versus where they inject a rubato in the middle of a phrase with no score indication .
local variatio.
This operationalization of the structured/unstructured distinction is illustrated in the Andings .
VidoviN alone executes the written ritardando, others apply unmarked accelerations or maintain By quantifying these patterns Ae such as noting "high tempo variance (CV > 15%) and extreme rubato in bars 10Ae18" for some players vs.
more literal adherence for others.
The methodology offers a concrete approach to discussing interpretive It moves beyond vague descriptors ("Cexible" vs.
"strict") to measurable differences, thereby contributing a repeatable framework to performance analysis in classical guitar.
This study has methodological limitations, including source audio heterogeneity .
roadcast vs.
YouTube provenance, subjectivity in alignment, and beattracker error.
Furthermore, this study's reliance on YouTube-sourced recordings introduces uncontrolled variables .
ecording venue acoustics, microphone placement, audio compressio.
The sample size .
= .
precludes statistical generalization beyond these speciAc performers.
The structured/unstructured timing taxonomy, while theoretically grounded, requires operationalized thresholds for replicability.
Future research should employ controlled-Adelity recordings and expanded performer samples to validate these patterns across the broader classical guitar Additionally, future research should implement computer-based performance analysis across a broader array of Villa-Lobos' Etudes or other signiAcant compositions within the classical guitar repertoire.
This would establish a framework for the comparative analysis of stylistic evolution across various works.
It is advisable to pursue future research that explores a longitudinal analysis of performance evolution, speciAcally focusing on how an individual guitarist's interpretation develops throughout their career.
This can be achieved through a thorough examination of recordings featuring the same artist over various years.
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Acknowledgments This article is a self-initiated scholarly work and is not derived from any funded research, grant, or institutional project.
The author received no Anancial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article.
The author thanks colleagues for their constructive comments on earlier drafts, the developers of Sonic Visualiser for making their tools freely available, and the guitarists and labels whose publicly accessible recordings enabled the analyses.
Any remaining errors are the author's References