Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management
http://dx.doi.org/10.29244/jpsl.15.5.773

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Food Self-Sufficiency Based on Local Rice in Flood-Prone Areas of Katingan
Regency, Central Kalimantan
Wanda Kristinia, Widiatmakaa,b, Dyah Retno Panujub
a Natural Resources and Environmental Management of Science Study Program, Graduate School, IPB University, IPB Baranangsiang Campus,

Bogor, 16144, Indonesia
b Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, IPB University, IPB Dramaga Campus, Bogor, 16680, Indonesia

Article History
Received
18 December 2024
Revised 9 July 2025
Accepted 17 July 2025

ABSTRACT

Keywords
flood-prone level, land
suitability evaluation, local
food, multi criteria
decision making (MCDM),
spatial planning

Land resources are the essential foundation for providing indispensable food sources. The increasing
demand for food necessitates the expansion of land dedicated to food production. Katingan
Regency has sufficient land resource potential for local food development but faces natural
challenges such as flooding and declining food production. Land suitability evaluation is crucial for
planning land use to achieve a sustainable food system. This study aims to identify, analyze, and
evaluate the suitability and availability of land for local rice areas in Katingan Regency. The approach
used is land suitability evaluation, which integrates multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) and
geographical information systems (GIS). The criteria weights were calculated using the analytic
network process (ANP), producing flood risk maps and land suitability classes for local food. Spatial
planning considerations were employed to obtain land availability according to its designation. The
study results show that approximately 76% of Katingan Regency area is suitable for local rice
farming. Land classified as highly suitable (S1) for local rice accounts for 7% or 136,130 hectares,
with shallow flood-prone level areas reaching 3,890 hectares. According to food balance
projections, Katingan Regency is expected to face a rice deficit by 2033. This research is expected to
help formulate appropriate land use regulations to increase local food production while preserving
biodiversity. Additionally, it provides a foundation for strategic measures that can be taken to
ensure long-term resilience, environmental conservation, and ecological sustainability in Katingan
Regency.

Introduction
Food security has become an urgent global issue and a major challenge with the increasing demand for food
due to the growing population [1,2]. Agricultural land that provides food supply and ensures several
ecosystem services, and supports food security and the achievement of the SDGs is becoming increasingly
limited [3–5]. Increased production to support Zero Hunger (Goal 2) has negative implications for achieving
other goals such as Climate Action (Goal 13) and Life on Land (Goal 15) [6]. The current agri-food systems,
coupled with land use changes, are exacerbating soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, and greenhouse gas
emissions [7–9]. Therefore, land use management has become an urgent issue that needs to be addressed.
Land-use planning plays a pivotal role in integrating climate adaptation into development strategies, fostering
resilient and sustainable landscapes that shield communities from climate-induced challenges [10,11].
Effective land management requires careful land-use planning to ensure that land use aligns with its
capabilities and suitability. Inappropriate land use can lead to land degradation, increased poverty, social
issues, and the destruction of existing cultures [12]. This process entails assessing current land conditions,
anticipating future land demands, and formulating strategies to manage and allocate land resources
efficiently [13]. Agricultural land suitability assessment is crucial to ensure food security, maintain ecological
balance, and promote sustainable agricultural development [5].
Corresponding Author: Wanda Kristini
terawandakristini@gmail.com
Natural Resources and Environmental Management of
Science Study Program, Graduate School, IPB University, IPB Baranangsiang Campus, Bogor, Indonesia.
© 2025 Kristini et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, allowing
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided proper credit is given to the original authors.

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Additionally, land suitability assessment plays an essential role in optimizing land use allocation and achieving
sustainable land resource utilization [14]. Identifying the most productive agricultural areas and those with
harmful ecological impacts using modern technologies like remote sensing can significantly improve land
management [10,15,16]. In several study of land suitability evaluation for rice cultivation has been widely
studied using diverse methods, including the land unit approach [17–19], GIS-based FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization) limitation methods, and multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) combined with
geospatial techniques [5,20–24]. Extensive research has been conducted both nationally and internationally
on land suitability assessment, focusing on the application of geographic information systems (GIS) and
MCDM [16,20,22,25–27]. MCDM provides a structured approach for evaluating options, analyzing problems,
and setting priorities [22,28]. The results of land evaluations can serve as a basis for land-use planning [12,20–
22,29].
Central Kalimantan, including Katingan, has been prioritized by the government under the food estate
program aimed at expanding agricultural land outside Java. According to Kajian Lingkungan Hidup Strategis
(KLHS) of the Katingan Regency and Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Daerah (RPJMD) for 2019–
2023, the allocation for agricultural land is 237,666.55 hectares [30]. Based on the existing land use area in
Katingan Regency, around 18.9 thousand hectares of rice fields have been utilized but not yet optimized [31].
Katingan Regency has significant local resource potential, including local rice varieties. The local community
has traditionally planted local rice as an effort to preserve agricultural land [26]. There are 43 types of local
rice in Central Kalimantan suitable for swamp and dry lands. The seven main rice varieties commonly
cultivated by local farmers include Sirandah, Babilem Haik, Babilem Kurik, Jargan Mayang, Jargan Baputik,
Budak, and Hiup. Local rice has several advantages, including resistance to floods, drought, acidic soil, iron
toxicity, and various pests [32,33]. Local rice plays a crucial role in preserving native germplasm, genetic
diversity, and local wisdom.
Optimizing rice production in Katingan Regency requires integrated land management, encompassing both
utilized and potential lands, as well as the development and application of local rice varieties suitable for
environmental conditions. Efforts to maximize the potential of agricultural land in Katingan face serious
challenges related to flood disasters, which can threaten rice productivity [34], especially during the rainy
season. Katingan is prone to flooding, causing many villages and sub-districts to be submerged, impacting the
lives of local communities [35]. The increasing frequency of extreme floods threatens food production and
local livelihoods. Mapping flood-prone areas is crucial to reducing flood risks and minimizing the impact of
agricultural land degradation [36]. The characteristics of flood-resistant local rice varieties become a potential
adaptive solution, ensuring optimal and sustainable land.
Agricultural land development has long been a central theme in previous studies, particularly in enhancing
high-yield rice production [20,22,37,38]. The integration of sustainable agricultural land is a crucial step
toward strengthening food security [10], including the optimization of local rice utilization to support a
balanced agrarian ecosystem. This research presents a novel and impactful approach by incorporating floodprone areas into the planning framework, enabling a more detailed and context-sensitive management of
agricultural landscapes to reinforce national food security. In particular, this research lies in the development
of a more comprehensive and adaptive framework that aligns agricultural practices with both environmental
and economic sustainability within a risk-based land use planning context.
This study integrates GIS and MCDM in land evaluation [39,40], creating instruments that can be used for
sustainable land planning and management [16,41,42]. Land utilization needs to be well-planned, considering
the proper implementation of existing spatial plans and more efficient land use for future agriculture [20,43].
The research combines GIS analysis methodology and ANP (Analytic Network Process) to identify available
and suitable land based on flood risk levels in the study area. The study aims to assess flood-prone areas and
land suitability for local rice cultivation, taking into account the regional spatial planning of Katingan Regency.
This assessment will identify available and suitable land for local rice cultivation and analyze land carrying
capacity based on production balance to ensure future food needs are met. The results of this assessment
are expected to assist in formulating land-use regulations for food zones in flood-prone areas that are
efficient in the long term, thereby encouraging increased food production while preserving local biodiversity
and protecting the environment for future generations.

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Materials and Methods
Study Area
This research was conducted in Katingan Regency, one of the regencies in Central Kalimantan, stretching from
south latitude S0°20' to S3°38' and east longitude E112°00' to E113°45'. This regency borders Malawi Regency
and West Kalimantan Province to the north; Gunung Mas Regency, Palangkaraya City, and Pulang Pisau
Regency to the east; the Java Sea to the south; and East Kotawaringin Regency and Seruyan Regency to the
west. The regency comprises 13 sub-districts: Katingan Kuala, Mendawai, Kamipang, Tasik Payawan, Katingan
Hilir, Tewang Sangalang Garing, Pulau Malan, Katingan Tengah, Sanaman Mantikei, Petak Malai, Marakit,
Katingan Hulu, and Bukit Raya [44]. Katingan is traversed by the Katingan River, which is approximately 650
km long [45]. In 2023, the population of Katingan Regency reached 169,355 people [45]. Katingan Regency
has the potential to become an alternative food granary as one of the high rice-producing regions in Central
Kalimantan, reaching 36,180 tons, with a harvested area of 12,042 hectares in 2023 [45]. A Map of the
research location is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Map of the research location in Katingan Regency.
Data Collection and Sources
The spatial data used in this research includes the 1:50,000 scale soil map unit from Balai Besar Pengujian
Standar Instrumen Sumberdaya Lahan Pertanian (BSIP SDLP), the 2019–2039 Spatial Plan Map of Katingan
Regency from the Regional Development Planning Agency of Katingan Regency, the Forest Area Map from
the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, the Geology Map from the Ministry of Energy and Mineral

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Resources, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) science for a changing
world, map of land use in 2023 from the regional development planning agency of Katingan Regency, rainfall
data in 2023 from the meteorology, climatology, and geophysics agency of Central Kalimantan, the
Topographical Map of Indonesia of Katingan Regency at a 1:50,000 scale, and population, rice production,
and per capita consumption data from Statistics. These data sets will be used to create maps that combine
flood risk classifications with assessments of land suitability for local rice cultivation. Other data used include
respondent data obtained from experts related to the research topic. ANP was used to weight each criterion
used to determine flood-prone areas and land suitability for local rice. Each criterion consists of sub-criteria
presented in Figure 2. The tools used in this study include computers with QGIS 3.40 for spatial data
processing, Super Decisions 2.10 for ANP analysis, questionnaire forms, stationery, and Microsoft Office.

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of: a) Rainfall, b) Soil type, c) Soil drainage, d) Soil texture, e) Distance to river, f) Slope,
g) Elevation, h) Distance to road, i) Geology, j) Land use, k) Spatial planning, and l) Forest area status.

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Data Analysis
Flood-Prone Area
The initial stage of the research began with analyzing flood-prone areas. This analysis used spatial ANP, which
combined spatial analysis and the ANP [46]. ANP is a technique used to obtain relative importance or priority
based on multiple criteria assessed by individuals or based on the normalization of measurement results [47].
It allows all elements at all levels to be connected within a network. ANP analysis was used to obtain the
weights of each flood-prone area criterion. Identifying criteria for flood-prone areas was conducted by
studying various references and discussions. The selected criteria were soil type, slope gradient, elevation,
distance to the river, average monthly rainfall, land use, and landforms. Criteria weights were obtained from
four experts in this assessment, including those from academia, the Meteorology, Climatology, and
Geophysics Agency, and the regional disaster management agency. Experts rate the criteria on a scale of 1 to
9 using a pairwise comparison on questionnaire form 1. The scale of comparative assessment of criteria in
ANP is presented in Table 1. The opinions of different experts were then combined using the geometric mean
[48].
Table 1. Rating for pairwise comparison.
1/9
1/7
Extreme Very strong
Less important

1/5
Strong

1/3
Moderate

1
Equal

3
5
Moderate Strong
More important

7
Very strong

9
Extreme

Sources: [44].

The process began with creating a pairwise comparison matrix to evaluate criteria and sub-criteria, allowing
consistency ratios and decision sustainability assessment to be calculated. Next, the relative weights of
decision-making elements were determined using the Eigenvector Method, which provides a systematic
approach to measuring preferences. This analysis created an unweighted supermatrix that incorporated the
weights obtained from the Eigenvector method, which were then placed into the pairwise comparison matrix.
Considering these results, a weighted supermatrix was formulated, integrating the priorities established in
the previous steps. Finally, a limited supermatrix was built, allowing for the prioritization of alternatives, thus
facilitating a structured and rational decision-making framework. This comprehensive approach ensured that
all essential factors were considered, resulting in more informed and sustainable decisions in network
management [47,49]. The consistency ratio value is expected to be below 10% [50]. The final weight of the
land suitability analysis was the sum of the weighted criteria results from the ANP, multiplied by the score of
each sub-criteria [37]. The weighted linear combination (WLC) results will be classified into four categories of
flood vulnerability levels, namely safe, low, medium, high.
Land Suitability and Land Availability for Local Paddy
The methods used are land suitability and land availability evaluation. The land suitability evaluation was
conducted using the MCDM procedure [16,20,26,37,38]. Land suitability analysis refers to the systematic
evaluation of land characteristics to determine its appropriateness for a specific use, such as agricultural
development, typically conducted at regional or landscape scales [51,52]. The seven criteria used consist of
several sub-criteria. Land suitability criteria for local rice include soil type, soil texture, soil drainage, slope,
distance to roads, and rainfall. Then, the criteria assessment process uses the ANP methodology. Criteria
weights were obtained from four experts in this assessment, who came from academia, the Central
Kalimantan Agricultural Instrument Standardisation Centre, the Katingan District Agriculture and Food
Security Office, and agricultural extension workers. The final weight of the land suitability analysis was the
sum of the weighted criteria results from the ANP, multiplied by the score of each sub-criteria [37].
Furthermore, overlays were conducted for all criteria and then scored to obtain a land suitability class for
local rice. The results of the land suitability evaluation are classified into land suitability classes consisting of
S1 (highly suitable), S2 (moderately suitable), S3 (marginally suitable), and N (not suitable) [12].
Availability analysis was conducted to identify areas with potential for local rice expansion. Land availability
is analyzed using spatial overlays of three parameters: forest area status, land allocation in the spatial pattern
of spatial planning, and land use/land cover maps [20]. The available land is chosen from areas designated
for other land use in the forest area status. Then, the available land is also chosen from agricultural areas
based on spatial planning. The current existing conditions for agricultural land were also considered. The land
suitability and availability evaluation results were analyzed to identify suitable and accessible land for
agricultural activities, such as land for local rice cultivation.

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Rice Balance Calculation until 2050
Before establishing the rice balance, rice needs for Katingan Regency until 2033 were estimated based on
population projections. Population data, consumption amounts, rice production, and harvested area from
2018–2023 were used to analyze food needs and were assumed to remain constant in the following years.
The per capita rice consumption was 93.79 kg/capita/year [53] and the rice productivity was 2.87 tons/ha
[45]. Population projections were made to depict population development over a specified period, as shown
in the following equation [54]:
Pn = P0 (1 + r)2

(1)

Where, Pn = Projected population (people); P0 = Base year population (people); and r = Population growth
rate (%). The annual rice consumption needs of the population can be calculated using the following equation:
Kpb = Kb / (Pn * x )

(2)

Where, Kpb = Rice demand in GKG (tons); Kb = Per capita rice consumption; Pn = Population in year t (people);
and x = Conversion from GKG to rice at 62.74%. The next step was to calculate the rice balance until 2050
using the following equation:
S/D = SPt － Kpb

(3)

Where, S/D represents surplus/deficit; SPt represents sugar production at time t (tons) projected until 2050;
and SCt represents rice consumption needs at time t (tons). The following is the overall research workflow
showing the relationship of the methodology in determining flood-prone areas, local rice, and projected
future food needs presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Research workflow.

Results
Criteria Weights and Sub-criteria Scores
Table 2 and Table 3 present the weights of the pairwise comparison matrix and the rankings of each criterion
based on all expert opinions analyzed using the ANP method. The consistency ratios from the ANP analysis
for flood-prone areas and land suitability for local rice are 0.021 and 0.059, respectively, making the criterion
weighting results acceptable as they are below the 10% inconsistency threshold. These values indicate that
the decisions were not made randomly [47].

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Table 2. Pairwise comparison matrix results based on all expert opinions for the flood-prone area.
ST
1.00
1.32
0.54
2.66
1.70
3.60
0.91

ST
SLO
EL
LS
DRT
RF
GEO

SLO
0.76
1.00
0.22
1.48
1.38
2.63
0.22

EL
1.85
4.49
1.00
2.82
3.98
5.73
0.64

LS
0.38
0.68
0.35
1.00
0.78
1.57
0.34

DTR
0.59
0.73
0.25
1.28
1.00
0.85
0.20

RF
0.28
0.38
0.17
0.64
1.18
1.00
0.38

GEO
2.89
4.53
1.57
2.94
4.90
5.90
1.00

Weight
0.084
0.152
0.048
0.189
0.201
0.277
0.047

Information: ST: Soil type; SLO: Slope; EL: Elevation; LS: Land use; DTR: Distance to river; RF: Rainfall; GEO: Geology.

Table 3. Pairwise comparison matrix results based on all expert opinions for land suitable for local paddy.

ST
SLO
ST
SD
DR
LU
RF

ST

SLO

ST

SD

DR

LU

RF

Weight

1.00
0.39
1.63
0.43
0.17
0.67
0.58

2.59
1.00
1.89
1.17
0.49
1.21
1.29

0.61
0.53
1.00
0.86
0.26
0.58
0.58

2.34
0.85
1.16
1.00
0.27
1.30
0.87

5.79
2.06
3.87
3.64
1.00
2.94
1.00

1.50
0.83
3.87
0.77
0.32
1.00
0.58

1.73
0.77
1.73
2.57
1.00
1.73
1.00

0.236
0.082
0.225
0.103
0.090
0.162
0.099

Information: ST: Soil type; SLO: Slope; ST: Soil texture; SD: Soil drainage; DR: Distance to road; LU: Land use; RF: Rainfall.

The results of the criterion weighting (Table 2) for flood-prone areas indicate that rainfall is the most
significant criterion in determining the level of flood vulnerability [55–59] in Katingan Regency, with a final
weight of 0.227. When it rains, the amount of water in the soil increases, and depending on the intensity and
duration of the rain, water can accumulate and cause flooding [56]. Slope gradient, land use, and distance to
the river [57] were also essential criteria in modelling flood vulnerability in the study area, with final weights
of 0.152, 0.189, and 0.201, respectively. The analysis results also indicate that the role of soil type, elevation,
and geology is smaller for flood-prone areas [56].
The results of the criterion weighting (Table 3) indicate that soil type is the most significant criterion [20–22]
in determining land suitability for local rice in Katingan, with a final weight of 0.236. Soil texture [60,61],
drainage [29], and land use are also crucial in determining land suitability for local rice in the study area, with
final weights of 0.225, 0.103, and 0.162, respectively. Meanwhile, slope gradient, distance to roads [62], and
rainfall were less critical in determining land suitability for local rice. Several studies [29,61,62] identified
rainfall and slope as key factors in land suitability. However, in Katingan, where farmers cultivate local rice
varieties on steep slopes [33], these criteria are considered less critical. Similarly, since local rice is resilient
to extreme weather [33], rainfall is not deemed a major determinant.
Each criterion used in the land suitability analysis consisted of several sub-criteria set with thresholds and
intervals based on literature reviews, field investigations, and other recommendations [42]. Sub-criteria were
scored from 1 to 5. The higher the score on the sub-criteria, the more accessible the land is from flooding
and the more suitable it is for local rice cultivation. The scores of each sub-criterion for flood-prone areas and
land suitability for local rice in Katingan are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Criteria weight and subcriteria score.
Criteria

Subcriteria

Soil type

Alfisols
Entisols
Histosols
Inceptisols
Oxisols
Spodosols
Ultisols
Fine
Slightly fine

Soil texture

http://dx.doi.org/10.29244/jpsl.15.5.773

Area
Hectares (ha)
340
76,270
428,140
615,580
44,880
242,960
779,340
1,354,720
88,610

%
0.02
3
20
28
2
11
36
62
4

Flood-Prone
Weight Score
3
1
5
0.084
2
3
4
3

Local paddy
Weight Score
3
4
0
0.236
5
1
0
2
5
0.225
4

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Criteria

Soil drainage

Slope

Elevation

Landuse

Average Monthly Rainfall

Distance to Road

Distance to River

Geology

Subcriteria
Medium
Slightly coarse
Coarse
Not textured
Well drained
Excessively drained
Somewhat poorly drained
Poorly drained
Very poorly drained
>1%
1–3%
3–8 %
8–15%
15–25%
25–40%
> 40 %
0–40 mdpl
40–100 mdpl
100–500 mdpl
500–2,000 mdpl
> 2,000 mdpl
Primary forest
Secondary forest
Plantations
Dryaland agriculture
Bare land
Paddy field
Shrubs
Mining
Settlement
Water body
217–219 mm
219–221 mm
221–223 mm
223–225 mm
225–227 mm
< 1,000 m
1,000–2,000 m
2,000–3,000 m
3,000–4,000 m
> 4,000 m
0–600 m
600–1,200 m
1,200–1,800 m
1,800–2,600 m
2,600–4,600 m
> 4,600 m
Basalt
Volcano rocks
Alluvial deposits
Dahor formation
Mentemoi formation
Warukin formation
Granite
Sintang intruction
Matan complex
Malihan pinoh
Sepauk tonalite

Area
Hectares (ha)
55,890
60
240,580
433,300
1,038,840
447,210
220
572,390
111,250
513,310
372,000
337,750
125,650
422,510
80,930
327,630
818,800
446,300
661,920
93,860
170
179,440
1,019,450
79,040
214,960
28,070
18,900
439,870
24,220
4,290
11,570
41,920
189,750
818,410
900,540
70,420
1,034,170
364,670
171,200
97,390
353,650
184,670
140,280
128,500
160,900
365,610
1041,090
170
32,700
489,610
648,850
16,750
150
5,680
7,420
8,510
93,380
838,690

%
3
0
11
20
48
21
0
26
5
24
17
15
6
19
4
15
41
22
33
5
0
9
50
4
11
1
1
22
1
0.21
1
2
9
40
45
3
51
18
8
5
17
9
7
6
8
18
52
0.01
2
23
30
1
0.01
0.27
0.35
0.40
4
39

Flood-Prone
Weight Score

0.152

0.048

0.189

0.227

1
1
2
3
4
5
5
1
2
3
4
5
5
5
3
2
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
4
3
2
1

Local paddy
Weight Score
3
2
1
0
5
3
0.103
2
1
0
5
5
4
0.082
3
2
1
1

0.162

0.099

0.090

0.201

0.047

1
1
3
4
4
5
3
0
0
0
2
3
3
5
5
5
4
3
2
1

1
2
3
4
5
5
3
3
1
2
2
1
4
5
5
2
4

Sources: Adapted from [8,59] for flood; [20,30,63] for paddy.

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Heavy rainfall between 217–219 mm is given a score of 5; lighter rainfall of 225–227 mm is given a score of 1
because the intensity affects surface runoff [59]. Additionally, water storage capacity, infiltration rate, and
drainage systems depend on soil type [64]. Entisols and inceptisols (score 1 to 2) are the most vulnerable,
while Spodosols (score 4) amd Histosols (score 5) exhibit greater resistance. Sandy soil has high transmission
and permeability due to its large particle size, while clay soil, with its small particles, shows the opposite [65].
Steep slopes (25 to 40%) are assigned a score of 5 due to rapid water flow, which helps reduce flood risk [66],
whereas lowland areas with slopes less than 3% are given a score of 1. Water flows from high to low areas,
making lowlands more susceptible to flash floods [67]. An altitude of over 2,000 m above sea level (score 5)
is safer than below 40 m above sea level (score 1), which is the most vulnerable.
Land use affects hydrological response, where areas with more vegetation have less runoff than tho se
without vegetation [68]. Land use type: Forests (score 5) are the most effective in mitigating surface runoff,
whereas agriculture and shrubs are assigned a score of 1. A distance of more than 2,600 m from the river is
scored 5, whereas a distance of less than 600 m is scored 1, as the closer it is, the greater the risk [69]. The
geology of an area, particularly the permeability of geological formations, plays a role in infiltration and
surface runoff processes, which can exacerbate flood events [37,55].
Furthermore, in the criteria of land suitability for local rice, soil type plays an important role, with preference
order: inceptisols (high fertility), entisols (high fertility but less mature), alfisols (high ph, good nutrient
availability), and ultisols (acidity constraints and high Al³⁺) [26]. The most suitable soil types are Inceptisols
(score 5), followed by entisols (4), alfisols (3), ultisols (2), oxisols (1), and histosols and spodosols (0). Finetextured soils are rated 5 for their high water and nutrient retention, while coarse or structureless soils
receive scores of 1–0 due to their lower retention capacity [54]. Suitable to moderate drainage is required
for optimal root zone aeration, preventing surface runoff, and maintaining soil moisture [38]. Well drainage
is assigned a score of 5, whereas severely obstructed drainage receives a score of 0. Localized rice requires
good or moderate drainage. Furthermore, flat or gently sloping land is ideal for rice cultivation [22], and slope
of less than 3% is ideal for rice (score 5), while over 40% is given a score of 1. Road networks play an essential
role in connecting crop products to markets [70]. Therefore, access to the market within < 1,000 m is given a
score of 5, and > 4,000 m is given a score of 1. Rainfall is closely related to the availability of planting water
[12]. The optimal rainfall of 223–227 mm is scored 5, while 217–219 mm is scored 2.
Flood-Prone Areas in Katingan Regency
Figure 4 shows the distribution of flood vulnerability levels in Katingan Regency. The map illustrates that the
central to downstream areas of the regency are flood-prone. This distribution follows the flow pattern of the
Katingan River. The flood threat is most evident in the closest proximity to the river and vice versa at the
furthest distance [56]. Most of Katingan's population lives along the river [63], posing a significant threat to
infrastructure damage and land degradation, especially agricultural land [71].

Figure 4. Flood-Prone Map of Katingan Regency.

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The largest flood-prone area in Katingan Regency was at the lowest level, with a percentage of 48% or
973,790 hectares of the total area of Katingan. At the very low and medium flood-prone levels, the respective
area percentages are 27% or 541,650 hectares and 21% or 425,620 hectares of the total area of Katingan.
Meanwhile, the high vulnerability level only accounted for 4% or 89,280 hectares of the total area of Katingan.
The table of flood-prone areas in Katingan Regency is presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Areas prone to flooding in Katingan Regency.
Level
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Total

Area flood-prone
Hectares (ha) Percentages (%)
541,650
27
973,790
48
425,660
21
89,280
4
2,030,390
100

Land Suitability and Availability for Local Rice with Flood-Prone Levels in Katingan Regency
Figure 5 and Table 6 show the land suitability classes for local rice in Katingan Regency. Most of the area in
Katingan Regency is suitable for local rice farming. The suitable land for local rice in this area covers 1,587,780
hectares or 76% of the study area. Land suitability for local rice falls into the highly suitable (S1) class with an
area of 489,290 hectares or 24% and the moderately suitable (S2) class with an area of 877,370 hectares or
43% of the total study area. Most of the highly suitable (S1) areas are located in the central part of the study
area (Katingan Tengah, Pulau Malan, Tewang Sagalanggaring, and Sanaman Mantikei) and along the Katingan
River. This condition is mainly due to the Inceptisol soil type, which is suitable for local rice cultivation.
Meanwhile, in the northern and southern parts of the study area (Katingan Kuala), the land suitability levels
are also highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2). This region is a rice production centre, making
Katingan a major rice-producing regency in Central Kalimantan [21].

Figure 5. The land suitability for local rice in Katingan Regency.
Table 6. Distribution area of suitable land for local paddy in Katingan Regency.
Suitability level
Highly suitable (S1)
Moderate suitable (S2)
Marginal suitable (S3)
Not suitable (N)
Total area

This journal is © Kristini et al. 2025

Total area classified by the suitability analysis
Hectares (ha)
Percentages (%)
489,290
24
877,370
43
163,260
8
500,470
25
2,030,390
100

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Figure 6(a) shows the distribution of available land for local rice in Katingan Regency. The total potential
available land is 257,950 hectares or 12.59% of the total study area. Most of the available land is located in
the central and southern regions of Katingan Regency. The distribution of available land follows the river flow
pattern. While, figure 6(b) shows the available land based on suitability classes for local rice and flood-prone
levels. This analysis shows that the available land with the S1 suitability class represents the most significant
area, with a total area of 136,130 hectares or 7% of the total study area. Based on flood-prone levels, the
largest area of S1 land is at the medium level, with 71,390 hectares, while the flood-safe area is only 3,890
hectares. At the high flood-prone level, the S1 land area is large, at 18,000 hectares. Highly suitable land for
local rice cultivation due to its optimal conditions and minimal constraints. When located in areas with very
low or low flood risk, it offers both high productivity and safety. However, since this category is limited in
area, its use should be optimized.

(a)
(b)
Figure 6. (a) The land availability for local rice; (b) The land available and suitable for local rice based on flood-prone
area in Katingan Regency.
The most significant available and suitable land is at the low to medium levels, with 94,630 hectares and
11,4880 hectares, respectively. In the very low flood-prone area, the available and suitable land that can be
utilized is only 19,020 hectares, while at the high flood-prone level, it is 28,200 hectares. Land in this class
requires additional effort to boost productivity, even when situated in flood-safe zones. However, as flood
risk increases with elevation in flood-prone areas, cultivation costs also rise, necessitating more intensive
management. The area of available land based on availability classes and flood-prone levels is presented in
Table 7.
Table 7. Distribution area of Land available and suitable based on flood-prone area levels in Katingan Regency.
Land available and suitable

Flood-prone areas of various levels (ha)

Total area (ha)

Percentage (%)

18,000

136,130

7

9,950

82,750

4

10790

240

114,880

19,020

37,840
1,773,670
2,030,390

2
87
100

Very low

Low

Medium

High

Highly suitable (S1)

3,890

42,840

71,390

Moderate suitable (S2)

10,240

29,850

32,700

Marginal suitable (S3)
Not available
Total

4,880

21,930

19.020

94,630

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Rice Balance in Katingan Regency until 2033 in Katingan Regency
Based on population projections, Katingan Regency is expected to experience an increase in population,
reaching 195.191 people by 2033. This implies an increase in rice consumption is projected to increase to
15.792 tons. The rice balance analysis shows that Katingan Regency will remain in a rice surplus until 2033,
thus maintaining rice self-sufficiency until that year. However, after 2033, Katingan Regency is projected to
start experiencing a rice deficit due to increasing food demand in line with population growth. To mitigate
food deficits and enhance agricultural production, a strategic approach centered on the development of
locally-based food production zones is imperative. This strategy must prioritize the utilization of land
resources that are both available and suitable for local rice cultivation in Katingan Regency, thereby
supporting long-term agricultural sustainability and food security. The projections of population, rice needs,
rice production, and surplus/deficit status until 2033 in Katingan Regency are presented in Figure 7.
45
40

Rice balence (Ton)

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2013

2016

2019

2022

2025*

2028*

2031*

3033*

Years
Rice need

Rice production

Rice balance

Figure 7. Rice balance in Katingan Regency until 2033. Notes: (*) = Projections.

Discussion
The flood-prone level is related to the intensity of agricultural land management required. Special handling
might not be very significant in areas with very low vulnerability. Conversely, areas with high vulnerability
require comprehensive flood mitigation strategies. In high-vulnerability locations, developing and using local
rice varieties with adaptive and flood-tolerant characteristics are potential approaches to optimizing
agricultural productivity. Improving food security in Katingan Regency requires an integrated strategy that
expands local rice farming areas on flood-free land [72]. Although the productivity of local rice is relatively
low (5 to 6 months growing period), optimizing the available and suitable land, combined with the
development of flood control infrastructure (irrigation, drainage, levees), will increase productivity and
stability of food supply. The food balance analysis will be an adequate planning bas is for achieving food
security goals. Additionally, sustainable agriculture development in flood-prone areas requires flood-tolerant
rice varieties. Adaptation strategies include adjusting planting times, selecting short-duration or floodtolerant varieties, and employing post-flood recession farming techniques. This study highlights the
importance of breeding and using rice varieties resistant to various environmental stresses, including floods,
as proven effective in Southeast Asia [73,74].
We recommend that policymakers consider expanding potential agricultural land for local rice in flood-prone
areas of Katingan Regency on unused land. Furthermore, the cultivation of local rice should be prioritized in
areas with the highest land suitability and optimal productivity potential. The sub-districts of Katingan Kuala,
Pulau Malan, Kamipang, and Katingan Hilir present strong potential to become key centers for local rice
production in Katingan Regency. In addition, flood-tolerant local rice varieties offer a promising opportunity
for cultivation in flood-prone areas, particularly in zones located near riverbanks. Implementation of the
allocation of flood-free S1 class land has the potential to increase national food production. The allocation of

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38,900 hectares for local rice cultivation, assuming a 2 tonnes/hectare productivity, is estimated to produce
77,800 tonnes of grain (equivalent to 48,200 tonnes of rice). This production has the potential to fulfil the
needs of Katingan Regency and contribute to Central Kalimantan's rice production, increasing regional
economic value, especially given the higher price of local rice compared to superior varieties. Spatial planning
policies not only ensure sustainable food security through high agricultural productivity but also contribute
to the preservation of the genetic diversity of local rice and support sustainable farming practices that have
been passed down through generations by indigenous communities. These efforts play a vital role in
strengthening food sovereignty in Katingan Regency.. Policies based on scientific research and local
knowledge enable the adaptation of best practices suited to local conditions. Furthermore, promoting and
enhancing the implementation of agricultural practices has a positive impact on the environment [75].
Land of local rice cultivation should be integrated into the Sustainable Food Agricultural Area (Kawasan
Pertanian Pangan Berkelanjutan/KP2B) within the Spatial Plan of Katingan Regency to ensure the
preservation and protection of productive agricultural land. Information about flood-prone areas is crucial in
conservation policies to minimize negative impacts on agricultural land in highly flood-prone areas. In regions
frequently affected by floods, preserving agricultural land can help reduce flood risks and protect biodiversity
[76]. Additionally, prioritizing the conservation of agricultural land around river confluences is an effective
strategy in land use policy [76]. Lastly, policies to promote diverse and sustainable local food can reduce
reliance on commercial food, increase biodiversity, and minimize the impact of climate change. Thus, such
policies will have implications for ecological sustainability and food security in Katingan Regency.
While this study offers valuable insights into food availability in Katingan Regency, it is important to
acknowledge certain limitations. First, the impact of extreme climate events and disasters on agricultural
production was not considered. Second, specific differences in local rice varieties were not accounted for in
this research. Third, socio-economic factors were not included in the assessment of sustainable agricultural
land. Therefore, additional research is essential to explore these aspects comprehensively. In addition,
projections of food availability do not fully account for highly dynamic and interactive factors such as ongoing
land use change and the widespread impacts of climate change. Future research efforts should therefore
prioritise the development and application of dynamic modelling approaches. Such models will provide more
comprehensive and robust projections of food availability by integrating complex spatial and temporal
dynamics, thus enabling evaluation of various future scenarios and assessment of policy interventions under
evolving environmental and socio-economic conditions.

Conclusion
Achieving food self-sufficiency in Katingan Regency requires an integrated approach that takes into account
the region’s geographical characteristics and its varying levels of flood vulnerability. This approach
underscores the importance of integrating spatial planning, agricultural innovation, and disaster risk
mitigation in the pursuit of sustainable regional development. Despite the presence of flood-prone areas, the
region holds significant potential for the development of local rice cultivation. Approximately 256,720
hectares have been identified as suitable for local rice cultivation, encompassing a range of flood
susceptibility levels. This potential necessitates adaptive land management strategies, including the
development of flood-tolerant local rice varieties and the construction of flood control infrastructure to
ensure sustainable agricultural production. The strategic allocation and management of flood-prone land not
only contribute to increased local rice production but also serve as a critical foundation for ensuring regional
food security through 2033. Moreover, safeguarding productive agricultural land is essential for
strengthening both ecological resilience and the social well-being of local communities. Therefore, Katingan
Regency holds strategic potential to serve as a model for adaptive agricultural development in flood-prone
regions across Indonesia.

Author Contributions
WK: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Investigation, Writing - Review & Editing; WDA, DRP:
Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision.

Conflicts of Interest
There are no conflicts to declare.

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JPSL, 15(5) | 785

Acknowledgments
This research is funded by Directorate General of Science and Technology Resources and Higher Education,
Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology in the Agreement Letter for the Implementation of
Research Program Assignment for Fiscal Year 2024 Number: 027/E5/PG.02.000PL/2024 dated June 11, 2024.

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