INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH
Volume 1 Nomor 2 Tahun 2023 Page: 85-102 E-ISSN: 3025-9681.
P-ISSN: 3026-3891
Submission: 17 November 2023.
Revision: 30 November 2023.
Publication: 30 December 2023 Hajj during the Dutch East Indies Pandemic in the 19thAe20th Centuries Johan Wahyudi1.
Dien Madjid2 Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta e-mail: johan.
wahyudi@uinjkt.
id 1, dienmadjid49@uinjkt.
Abstract This paper discusses about the phenomenon of Hajj during the pandemic in the XIXth to mid-XXth centuries in the Dutch East Indies with a focus on the governance of health services carried out by the Dutch East Indies government.
This research uses historical research methods to explore various relevant primary and secondary sources, such as historical archives, government documents, travel records, and historical literature.
The main finding of this research is that the pandemic that occurred during that time, such as the cholera outbreak, had a significant impact on the Hajj journey and the welfare of the The Dutch East Indies government undertook various efforts to manage health services during the Hajj journey, including the provision of medical facilities and The results of this study provide a deeper understanding of how the Dutch East Indies government dealt with the pandemic during that time and how it affected the Hajj experience and health care governance efforts in the context of Dutch East Indies The findings can provide valuable insights for understanding the history and context of the pandemic in global and regional history.
Keywords: History.
Hajj.
Pandemic.
And Health Abstrak Tulisan ini membahas tentang fenomena haji pada masa pandemi di abad XIX hingga pertengahan abad XX di Hindia Belanda dengan fokus pada tata kelola pelayanan kesehatan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah Hindia Belanda.
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian sejarah untuk mengeksplorasi berbagai sumber primer dan sekunder yang relevan, seperti arsip sejarah, dokumen pemerintah, catatan perjalanan, dan literatur Temuan utama dari penelitian ini adalah bahwa pandemi yang terjadi pada masa itu, seperti wabah kolera, memiliki dampak yang signifikan terhadap perjalanan haji dan kesejahteraan jemaah.
Pemerintah Hindia Belanda melakukan berbagai upaya untuk mengelola layanan kesehatan selama perjalanan haji, termasuk penyediaan fasilitas medis dan karantina.
Hasil penelitian ini memberikan pemahaman yang lebih mendalam Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid tentang bagaimana pemerintah Hindia Belanda menangani pandemi pada masa itu dan bagaimana pandemi memengaruhi pengalaman haji dan upaya tata kelola layanan kesehatan dalam konteks sejarah Hindia Belanda.
Temuan-temuan ini dapat memberikan wawasan yang berharga untuk memahami sejarah dan konteks pandemi dalam sejarah global dan regional.
Kata kunci: Sejarah.
Haji.
Pandemi.
dan Kesehatan The policies and regulations implemented PENDAHULUAN by the Dutch East Indies government The history of the Hajj pilgrimage is played an important role in shaping the always interesting to study, given its Hajj experience of the time.
With strict central role in the lives of Muslims around control and supervision, the government the world.
One of the most interesting, yet sought to ensure the safety and well- often overlooked, periods is the Dutch being of pilgrims, while also safeguarding East Indies era from the 19th to the mid- their colonial interests in the region.
This 20th century.
Against a backdrop of strong created a unique dynamic between the colonialism, the Hajj journey faced a variety of dynamics and pilgrims' spiritual needs and colonial political interests.
analogous to modern-day pandemics.
The main purpose of this article is to better understand how pilgrims faced.
During this time, the Hajj journey was not adapted to, and overcame challenges only a spiritual challenge, but also a amidst colonial health conditions and logistical and health one.
Although there was no global pandemic as known in the This expected to provide new insights into the modern era, this period often faced history of the Hajj and how challenges outbreaks of diseases that spread rapidly, from the past can provide lessons for affecting the journey and safety of today's generation.
This required adaptations and innovations in the way the journey was LITERATURE REVIEW conducted, as well as how the Dutch East There are a number of writers and Indies colonial government responded to historians who discuss the relationship of the challenges.
the Hajj with the Dutch East Indies Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid government or with pilgrims from the Mecca in a particular period.
Ziesel Dutch East Indies.
highlights the history, procedures, and quarantine conditions that these religious Abdoel Patah wrote a book on the health travellers endured in the Red Sea area, of the Hajjis entitled "De Medische Zijde highlighting the health, security, and van de Bedevaart naar Mekkah," In his social aspects involved in the experience.
book, he explores the medical aspects of With its focus on quarantine in the Red the Hajj journey to Mecca around the Sea, this book provides an in-depth The book presents an in-depth understanding of the important role and overview of the physical journey, health, complexities of maintaining the health and medical challenges faced by pilgrims and safety of pilgrims during their journey during their journey to the holy city of to Mecca (Ziesel: 1.
In contrast to Mecca.
Abdoel Patah looks at various Abdoel Patah's book.
Ziesel's description aspects, from medical preparations before is more focused on health management at the journey to health care while in Mecca, sea, particularly in quarantine sites such as well as the social and health impacts of as Kamaran.
On the other hand.
Ziesel the Hajj experience itself.
Through this does not pay much attention to health insights into how health and religious Islamic transported the pilgrims from the Dutch travel are intertwined in the context of the East Indies.
In fact, this object is the focus (Patah:
of this paper.
As a primary source, this book is a worthy source of information for this Umar Ryad wrote an article about the Unfortunately, it does not provide conditions of the Dutch East Indies enough information on the management pilgrims and the Dutch themselves around of health on board the Hajj carriers.
the 19th century, in an article entitled "On his Donkey to the Mountain of ArafAt: Dr Jan Hendrik Ziesel wrote a book entitled Van der Hoog and his Hajj Journey to "De Pelgrims-Quarantaine in De Roode Mecca".
It describes the Hajj journey of Dr Zee," which specifically explores aspects .
r Mohammed Abdul-Al.
Van der of the quarantine applied to pilgrims in the Hoog .
, a Dutch bacteriologist Red Sea.
The book provides an in-depth who converted to Islam.
The name Van insight into the quarantine practices der Hoog is closely connected to one of applied to pilgrims during their journey to Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid the most famous cosmetic brands in the The data used in Faturrahman's research Netherlands in the early 21st century.
This are archives and historical books.
The paper also notes that conversions of results of the study found that the factors Dutch people in the Dutch East Indies influencing changes in regulations issued occurred sporadically, but were very rare by the East Indonesia State government in the Netherlands itself.
Compared to were always different every year.
The other European countries such as Great changes were caused by social aspects Britain.
France.
Austria or Germany, characterised by the number of applicants conversions to Islam in the interwar exceeding the quota given, so the East Netherlands are considered uncommon Indonesia State government had to pay (Ryad: 2017, 185-.
Despite discussing attention to the applicants who were on the waiting list.
In addition, there are Netherlands, the article does not clearly political aspects in the form of the entry of reveal the conditions of the pilgrimage in new areas controlled by the Dutch, so Mecca, especially during the pandemic quotas must also be given to these areas (Faturrahman: 2.
This paper has not significantly discussed the role of the On a more local scale, the implementation Dutch of the Hajj in South Sulawesi during the East Indies managing the Hajj during the pandemic.
colonial period is touched upon by Ahmad Faturrahman and his friends in an article In contrast to Faturrahman.
Lesi Maryani entitled "The Ever-Changing Rules of Hajj wrote an article on the history of Hajj in in South Sulawaesi 1947-1950".
This "Implementation of Hajj during the Dutch ever-changing East Indies: A Critical Review of the implementation of the Hajj in the period Thoughts of C.
Snouck Hugronje".
This 1947-1950 in the Eastern Indonesian article presents a comprehensive study of State.
This research uses the historical the perspective of Snouck Hurgronje, a method which involves various stages, prominent advisor to the Dutch East such as heuristics .
ource collectio.
Indies source criticism .
ssessment of source reliabilit.
, interpretation .
ata analysi.
Having been actively involved and historiography .
istorical writin.
Government.
Hajj Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid in the scholarly tradition in Mecca for a collection of documents relevant to the long time.
reports, letters, and diaries from the Snouck had considerable expertise in evaluating the motivations, behaviours, and transformations faced by Muslims responses to the pilgrimage policy and while performing the Hajj and after their how they coped with the world pandemic The Dutch East Indies government that existed in the 19th to mid-20th generally regarded the hajj as a catalyst for socio-economic issues.
By stopping its circulation, it allegedly reduced the risk of Every source of information has its fostering resentment towards European potential biases or limitations.
External Snouck challenges this premise and proposes an alternative perspective, advocating for government documents or sources.
This is important Nusantara to ensure that the documents analysed (Maryani:
really come from the era under study and Despite presenting another perspective are not subject to forgery.
While internal on the history of the hajj, the pandemic source criticism is concerned with the and the organisation of the hajj are not credibility and reliability of the information fully explored in this article.
presented in the documents.
It involves evaluating the accuracy, consistency, and RESEARCH METHOD The National Archives of the Republic of institutions that produced the documents.
Indonesia or Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (ANRI) and the National Library After the source critique process, the data that has been obtained and verified for Republik authenticity will be further analysed.
Data Indonesia (PNRI) are two key institutions interpretation involves understanding the in the storage of historical documents historical context, socio-political situation from the Dutch East Indies colonial period.
and cultural background of the time.
In the process of searching for sources.
Through the researcher will identify and browse a researchers can understand the meaning.
Republic Perpustakaan Indonesia Nasional in-depth Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid implications and impact of the information weaken these kingdoms, replacing the found in the sources.
traditional power structure with their own colonial system of governance.
The final step in this research method is the writing of history based on the Within the structure of Dutch East Indies previous findings and analyses.
Writing society.
Muslims often found themselves history requires the ability to present in a subordinate position compared to information in an objective, critical and Europeans and other groups that were balanced manner.
The researcher will considered more supportive of colonial compile a historical narrative that reflects Nonetheless, resistance against the the overall picture of the hajj pilgrimage in Dutch was often led or supported by the Dutch East Indies colonial period.
Muslim groups, such as the Aceh war and Banten Islamic perspectives and sources of information organisations, such as Sarekat Islam, also that have been analysed (Madjid and played an important role in the Indonesian Wahyudi: 2014, 115-130.
Madjid: 2021, 30-.
political awareness and independence Through among Muslims.
methodology, historical research on the In response to Dutch domination and pilgrimage during the Dutch East Indies attempts at Christianisation.
Muslims in colonial period can be conducted in a the Dutch East Indies began to form social systematic, in-depth and critical manner.
and political organisations to strengthen
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
their position.
Muhammadiyah .
ounded in 1.
and Nahdlatul Ulama .
ounded in At the beginning of the Dutch occupation 1.
were the two largest organisations period, many Islamic kingdoms in the to emerge from this period, focusing on education, social welfare, and the renewal sovereign, such as the Kingdoms of Aceh, of Islamic thought.
These organisations Mataram and Banten.
However, with not only contributed to the Islamic revival.
Dutch colonial expansion, the power and autonomy of these kingdoms began to national identity.
The Dutch used "devide et impera" .
ivide and rul.
tactics to divide and Indonesia's Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid Despite external pressures from the Despite the obstacles and surveillance, many pilgrims manage to complete their Indonesia pilgrimage with great spiritual solemnity.
For them, the journey was not only a ritual disagreements between modernist and requirement, but also a form of spiritual These resistance to colonial oppression.
Their disagreements sometimes affected how experiences in the Holy Land often strengthened their commitment to Islam government and how they responded to and increased their awareness of the emerging socio-political issues of the importance of Muslim solidarity.
Muslims There Although the colonial government tried to During the colonial period, the Dutch East limit the interaction of pilgrims with Indies government viewed the Hajj with Muslims suspicion as it was perceived as a potential unifier of Muslims and a medium Mecca, as the centre of the for the exchange of anti-colonial ideas.
Islamic world, allowed pilgrims from response, the Dutch often limited the Indonesia to interact with pilgrims from number of pilgrims allowed to depart, and Asia.
Africa and the Arab world.
This imposed strict fees and regulations.
allowed for the exchange of information These policies made the Hajj inaccessible on anti-colonial movements, the renewal for the majority of Indonesian Muslims, of Islamic thought, and strategies of privatising certain groups with financial resistance against colonisers.
and political capacity.
The colonial hajj experience had a lasting The colonial government saw the hajj as a Many pilgrims returned with Departing pilgrims were often heavily new knowledge and skills, as well as a vetted and issued with travel documents passion to fight for independence and that restricted their movement.
In Mecca, justice in the homeland.
They contributed they were often assigned to specific to the formation of nationalist and Islamic areas, and their activities were monitored reform movements, and their experiences by colonial agents or informants placed in the Holy Land served as inspiration for among the pilgrims.
subsequent generations.
Indonesian Muslim Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid In the colonial context, the Hajj was not The steamships provided by the Dutch East Indies government specifically for the representation of the struggle, resistance Hajj journey are concrete evidence of the and identity formation of Muslims in government's role in providing easier Indonesia.
access for pilgrims.
These ships were usually organised specifically for the Hajj Departure including accommodation, kitchens, and prayer rooms.
This not only provides During the Dutch East Indies colonial comfort but also ensures safety during the period, the role of the colonial government long and dangerous journey (Vredenbregt:
in providing transport for pilgrims who 1962, 91-.
wanted to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca using steamships was a very The involved in organising the logistics of the complexity of the dynamics of colonialism.
Hajj journey.
They provided food, water religion and social at that time.
and other supplies needed by pilgrims during the journey.
This involved liaising The Dutch East Indies government had with local service providers and traders to strong motives for managing the Hajj ensure adequate supply.
In addition, the This not only had to do with a government also played an important role moral responsibility towards the Muslim in the financial management of the community in the colony but also with pilgrimage by facilitating the necessary political and economic interests.
They payments and transactions.
realised that facilitating Hajj travel would gain the support and sympathy of the Security is also a focus of the colonial Muslim government in the Hajj journey.
They kept potential for social unrest.
In addition, by the pilgrims' journey safe from potential organising and supervising the pilgrims' threats such as pirate attacks or other journey, the government could control information and movement within its responsibility to protect the colony's citizens, including the pilgrims, during their journey.
This Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid The Dutch East Indies government also This collaboration also benefited both had a role in the overall supervision and parties, with the colonial government able organisation of the Hajj journey.
They to organise the Hajj journey efficiently, ensured that all pilgrims had complete travel documents and complied with This administrative preparations, such as visas (Miller:
played an important role in transporting during the journey (Keyzer: 1871, 20-.
East Ocean, a British ship company, also potential irregularities or illegal acts Dutch In addition to Dutch ship companies, and passports, as well as monitoring for The pilgrims from the Dutch East Indies.
This Indies reflects the international aspect of the organisation of the Hajj journey at that organising the Hajj journey by relying on The ships of Ocean had an extensive the three main ship companies of the network and experience in managing the Amsterdamsche Lloyd.
Rotterdamsche Lloyd .
oth Dutc.
, and The involvement of British ship Ocean (Britis.
The trust in these ship companies helped maintain variety in transport options for pilgrims and also strengthened the relationship between the Dutch East Indies and Britain.
shipping industry and their contribution to The colonial government chose to work the transport of pilgrims.
The Dutch they had experience in managing the safe government chose to work with Dutch and efficient passage of pilgrims.
ship companies, such as Amsterdamsche focusing on trusted ship companies, the Lloyd and Rotterdamsche Lloyd, as this colonial government could reduce the risk helped promote Dutch economic interests to the safety and well-being of the pilgrims during their journey.
East with these ship companies also because The Indies companies were usually equipped with During the colonial period, the Dutch East modern technology and the necessary facilities to ensure the comfort and safety of the pilgrims during the long journey.
Indies-now Indonesia-was Dutch Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid During this time, a monopoly communities felt aggrieved, arguing that policy was implemented in various sectors this policy only benefited the colonial of society, including the transport of government and disregarded the interests The main purpose of this policy, among other things, was to strengthen Madjid: 2020, 91-.
(Wahyudi economic control and ensure that colonial interests were prioritised (Miller: 2006.
The Crippling Pandemic 189-.
From Pandemics outbreaks during the 19th and 20th government to retain full control over centuries not only claimed millions of lives prices, quality and transport capacity.
This but also transformed the social, economic, and political landscape around the world.
From the deadly Spanish Flu to the competition from other parties, ensuring outbreak presented a unique set of that no other entity can offer lower rates challenges and profound implications for or more attractive services.
global society.
In terms of security and legality, this policy In 1918Ae1919, the Spanish Flu, estimated was also designed to prevent illegal to infect a third of the world's population Full control over the transport and cause the deaths of up to 100 million of pilgrims minimised risks such as people, was a tragic example of how smuggling or illegal transport.
While from pandemics can paralyze countries.
It not a security aspect, the colonial government only disrupted healthcare systems and argued that it could ensure the safety of dynamics of the First World War.
On the movement of people, preventing potential other hand, cholera, which spread through security threats.
contaminated water and food, prompted sanitation infrastructure reforms in many However, despite a series of seemingly major cities and resulted in significant logical reasons, the monopoly policy Many changes in public health regulations (Anderson: 1977, 34-.
Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid Bubonic plague, spread through fleas such as trains and ships, the virus quickly from rats, had an equally large impact, spread to different parts of the world.
causing massive migration from affected The cholera and bubonic plague, which areas and triggering important changes in have deeper historical roots, show how public health practices.
Through all these shipping and trade routes influenced their tragedies, one thing that is clear is the Busy harbors and crowded trade importance of public health preparedness routes in Asia.
Africa, and Europe allowed and response.
Each of these outbreaks, for the rapid movement of goods and despite their own characteristics, taught In many cases, ships carrying the world about human vulnerability to goods also carried rats, which are carriers disease and the importance of innovation, of the fleas that cause bubonic plague, or research, and cooperation in dealing with they transported water contaminated with it (Kopstein: 1.
cholera bacteria.
Transcontinental shipping and trade have Thus, while transcontinental shipping and trade enrich the world in terms of cultural economic development.
However, behind the economic benefits they brought, there 19th and 20th centuries.
The exchange of preparedness in the face of global threats goods, ideas, and people between regions and teaches valuable lessons on how created ideal conditions for the spread of global infrastructure can affect public infectious disease agents.
In the context of the Spanish Flu, although In the midst of the infectious disease the exact cause of its starting point is still challenges plaguing the Dutch East Indies debated, the mobility of soldiers during region, the Dutch colonial government World War I played a significant role in its constructed a response that reflected Troops moving from one front to This underscores the importance of spread of disease, particularly during the introduce unprecedented public health were also significant implications for the both the need to protect economic interests and a moral commitment to the merchants following the war movement, local population.
As an initial response, became the medium through which the flu virus spread.
With modes of transport Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid public health services aimed at preventing In its overall response, the Dutch East and controlling the spread of disease.
The Indies government tried to find a balance establishment of hospitals, clinics, and between safeguarding colonial economic quarantine stations in harbors became an interests and responsibility for the welfare integral part of this system, targeting of local communities.
While many efforts diseases such as malaria, cholera, and have been made to improve health and bubonic plague that often arose from well-being, there are still challenges and human movement and trade.
health information campaigns to educate priorities and actual motivations of such In addition, the government also launched This included good sanitation Vaccine practices, safe cooking methods, and the importance of vaccinations.
Education Under the colonial rule of the Dutch East and training were also provided to local Indies, health workers to ensure a consistent diseases became one of the top priorities, approach to addressing health issues (Madjid and Wahyudi: 2023, 161-.
impact that disease outbreaks could have on the social and economic stability of the However, between public health efforts and colonial Often.
The implementation of regular vaccinations was not only a proactive measure to interests took precedence over public protect the population from disease but health interests, with policies placing also to maintain their economic stability more emphasis on maintaining labor and trade than the health welfare of the local Vaccination became a vital tool in their public health Nonetheless, the presence of strategy to control disease and prevent its serious infectious diseases put pressure on the colonial government to take preventive measures, albeit with different The establishment of periodic vaccination programs is a testament to the colonial government's commitment to addressing Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid more proactive approach, with the aim of importance of health in the context of protecting individuals from diseases they governance but also an understanding of may face.
the direct link between public health and Vaccination has been one of the most Infectious effective prevention methods so far.
diseases could disrupt the workforce.
However, there are different types of hamper trade, and damage relations with vaccinations applied based on disease local communities, all of which were vital to the survival of colonialism.
This demonstrates the complexity and need for However, on the other hand, it should be a customized approach based on the specific health risks in a given area.
vaccination may also be viewed with skepticism by some local residents.
They administration, whether subcutaneous or may feel that such medical intervention is enteral, may have different side effects in government to control and dominate research and understanding.
Nonetheless, there is no denying Furthermore, vaccination is also reflected in the policies introducing periodic vaccinations show of some countries that require proof of recognition of the importance of scientific certain vaccinations before entering their and medical approaches in addressing This not only demonstrates the public health issues.
urgency of vaccination in the context of In the world of travel, the health and safety of passengers and crew is a top One way to ensure this is through countries in ensuring mutual welfare.
The the prevention of diseases that they may existence of such policies creates an encounter during the journey.
There are additional layer of protection for the public various methods of prevention, but two that are often applied are the use of preventative measures (Schmidt: 1927, serums and vaccination.
Serums are 155-.
usually used in response to a specific threat or injury, while vaccinations have a Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid In the context of international migration, years emphasizes the importance of this the health of emigrants is a major focus, especially when talking about departures smallpox, recommendations for other pre- to developed countries such as the United travel vaccinations, such as cholera, are States.
Policies that require emigrants to also important considerations (Patah:
verify their fitness with consular officers 1935, .
before departure illustrate how important Quarantine Regulations it is to ensure that individuals entering a country do not carry health risks.
The 19th- to 20th-century voyages were addition, certifying the fitness of vessels characterized by the spread of infectious diseases such as bubonic plague.
Spanish commitment to ensuring welfare and flu, dysentery, and others.
To prevent the safety during the journey (Schmidt: 1927, spread of these diseases, a number of 159-.
countries involved in the Hajj route, such as the Arabian Peninsula .
ither during The decision of the United States and the leadership of the Ottoman Turks or Germany not to sign the 1912 Sanitary during the Ibn Saud Dynast.
Britain, the Convention demonstrates the desire of Netherlands, both countries to maintain autonomy in European colonies, agreed to organize hygienic and determining their travel health policies.
disease-free Despite this, both countries still ensure that certain health directives are adhered One multilateral meeting was the obligation for to, especially when it comes to ports pilgrims to have their health checked at under their control.
This underlines the the clinic and follow the quarantine importance of adapting health policies program if they had an infectious disease.
based on the specific conditions and The importance of quarantine for pilgrims needs of each country.
from the Dutch East Indies on Kamaran The Island in the 19th century was related to particularly against smallpox, stands out efforts to prevent the spread of infectious as one of the main preventive health diseases that could endanger the health measures in international travel.
The and safety of pilgrims and the general At that time, knowledge about vaccination that is valid for up to seven Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid infectious diseases was still limited, so disease outbreaks that could claim many quarantine became one of the most effective measures to isolate people who quarantine on Kamaran Island is a individuals who might carry diseases, and disease prevention efforts were important prevent the spread of infection to other in maintaining public health and safety in Quarantine was also a form of the past.
concern for public health, reflecting a The Dutch recognized the importance of maintaining East Indies organization of Hajj ships, directed that public health.
every ship carrying Hajj pilgrims departing Not only as a protective measure for from Dutch East Indies ports should dock pilgrims, the quarantine on Kamaran at Kamaran Island.
On a regular basis.
Island, off the Arabian Coast, also played pilgrims would disembark to have their a role in protecting the local community health checked.
For pilgrims who proved and the Dutch East Indies as a whole.
to be sick, they would undergo an Dutch East Indies If the illness was known to be government could minimize the risk of contagious, then he would not be allowed disease transmission that could harm the to disembark, and the possibility of local community.
The safety and health of continuing the pilgrimage became slim pilgrims was a top priority, and quarantine (Madjid and Wahyudi: 2023, .
was one way to ensure that they did not KESIMPULAN Hajj in Indonesia is an annual ritual that themselves or others (Ziesel: 1929, 57- has a long history dating back to the Dutch East Indies colonial period.
The The quarantine measure also reflects the Dutch East Indies government saw the Hajj as an opportunity to increase the amount of foreign exchange.
This was seen in the great interest among Muslims began to take proactive measures to in reaching the Holy Land.
They were Governments safeguard public health and prevent Author: Johan Wahyudi.
Dien Madjid willing to spend a lot of money on funds to Johan Wahyudi et al.
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Kolff, threat of infectious diseases.
The Dutch East Indies government issued a number Kopstein.
Felix.
"The House-Rat Fauna of of rules to regulate the health of pilgrims.
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