Vol.
No.
Desember 2025: 458Ae471 https://doi.
org/10.
22146/kawistara.
https://jurnal.
id/kawistara/index ISSN 2088-5415 (Prin.
| ISSN 2355-5777 (Onlin.
Submitted: 22-06-2025.
Revised: 09-02-2026.
Accepted:25-02-2026 The Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Architecture.
Devotion, and Power:
The Kalasan Temple and Buddhist Legitimation under the oailendra Dynasty Tomy Wijaya1 Fatimah Alauwiyah2 Muhammad Reza Pahlevi3* 1,2,3 Universitas Sriwijaya *Corresponding author: mrpahlevi@fkip.
ABSTRACT This study analyzes Kalasan Temple as a religious and political entity that articulated and mobilized Mahayana Buddhist ideology to bolster dynastic legitimacy during the oailendra dynasty in eighth-century Java.
The study utilizes a historical-archaeological approach, systematically applying heuristics, critical source evaluation, interpretation, and historiography to both primary data, specifically the Kalasan Inscription .
CE) and the templeAos architectural and ornamental characteristics, as well as secondary scholarship in history, archaeology, and Buddhist studies.
This research reinterprets epigraphic and architectural data by contextualizing Kalasan within the broader framework of contemporary Buddhist monuments in Central Java, such as Sari.
Plaosan, and the Borobudur complex, to evaluate common ideological patterns and institutional strategies, rather than regarding existing literature as a descriptive authority.
The analysis reveals that KalasanAos establishment as a Bhavanam, bolstered by royal patronage and simA land grants, signifies a purposeful incorporation of Mahayana devotional practices into the political framework of Ancient Mataram.
The study demonstrates, through comparative architectural and contextual analysis, that Mahayana Buddhism functioned as both elite religiosity and a legitimizing framework connecting rulers, monastic communities, and society.
This article emphasizes methodological rigor and intersite comparison, offering critical insights into the interplay between religious ideology and political authority, demonstrating how sacred architecture actively influenced the development of early Javanese civilization.
KEYWORDS Kalasan Temple.
Mahayana Buddhism.
oailendra Dynasty.
Religious Legitimation.
Buddhist Architecture INTRODUCTION Hindu-Buddhist provide crucial evidence for understanding period in Indonesia function as both religious how ruling elites established legitimacy structures and complex historical records and communicated ideological messages that convey political authority, spiritual to religious communities and the general convictions, and cultural exchanges.
In early Temples operated as dynamic entities Javanese within broader socio-political and religious architecture embodied abstract concepts contexts, rather than merely serving as of power, devotion, and cosmological order.
static artifacts of artistic achievement (Hati Archaeological artifacts, such as temples, & Roziqin, 2023.
Ridwan, 2.
Temples CopyrightA 2025 Tomi Wijaya, et.
This article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.
0 International license.
Jurnal Kawistara is published by the Graduate School of Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Central Java emerged in the eighth epigraphic evidence establishes Kalasan as century as a significant hub of political not only a Buddhist shrine but also as an and religious transformation within the institutionalized religious center supported Indonesian archipelago.
During this time, by royal patronage, which includes the the region became a locus of engagement maintenance (Maziyah, 2.
ruling elites promoting divergent religious Despite ideologies, particularly Hindu Shaivism and discussion surrounding Kalasan Temple has Mahayana Buddhism.
The Ancient Mataram primarily concentrated on architectural polity, backed by the oailendra dynasty, played a crucial role in the expansion of chronological placement within the context Mahayana of Central Javanese temples.
While these temple construction projects.
These projects studies have significantly contributed to Buddhism monumentAos strategic efforts that incorporated religious characteristics and spatial configuration, institutions into the framework of political they often perceive architecture merely Monumental Buddhist temples as an aesthetic or technical achievement such as Borobudur.
Sari, and Kalasan rather than as a medium for ideological exemplify the use of architecture to reinforce political implications of Kalasan Temple, particularly its role in conveying religious religious framework (Dewi et al.
, 2024.
legitimacy during the oailendra dynasty, are Rosalinda et al.
, 2.
insufficiently analyzed.
Classical temples The Kalasan Temple occupies a significant such as Kalasan were constructed not position among these monuments.
Located solely for ritualistic purposes but also as in the Sleman region of modern Yogyakarta, visual and spatial embodiments of authority.
Kalasan is part of a significant sacred incorporating Mahayana Buddhist principles landscape that includes the Prambanan into the political structure (Kempers, 1933.
and Sari temples, indicating that this area Santiko, 1.
functioned as an important religious and Recent studies have begun to suggest political corridor in the eighth century.
The this interpretive trajectory.
Pattipawae and historical importance of Kalasan Temple Pattipawae & Tumimomor .
underscored is unequivocally affirmed in the Kalasan the importance of visual representation Inscription from 778 CE, which records and digital media in conveying the cultural the establishment of a TArA Bhavanam, a Kalasan Temple, sanctuary dedicated to the goddess TArA Gumulya et al.
demonstrated that its , commissioned by Rakai Panangkaran at architectural design encapsulated symbolic the request of Buddhist religious leaders meanings linked to dynastic legitimation.
(Mitra, 2011.
Pradoko et al.
, 2.
This Herwindo et al.
, present a comparative Tomy Wijaya.
Fatimah Alauwiyah.
Muhammad Reza Pahlevi Ai Architecture.
Devotion, and Power:The Kalasan .
analysis that situates Kalasan within a broader context of Buddhist monuments shaped by function as primary historical sources that elite patronage.
Nevertheless, these studies encapsulate ideological significances.
This frequently neglect to systematically analyze research combines historical inquiry with how specific religious concepts, particularly Mahayana devotional practices centered on TArA , were incorporated into architectural and epigraphic evidence as critical data for analyzing the connection between Mahayana instruments for political legitimization.
This article examines the Kalasan Temple Buddhist devotion and dynastic authority in early Java (Irwanto & Sair, 2.
This method is implemented through as a religious and symbolic space where architecture, devotion, and power converge, interpreting the temple not solely as a primary stages: heuristics, source criticism, static artifact but as a religious institution interpretation, and historiography (Herlina, employed by the oailendra Dynasty to assert Mahayana Buddhist legitimacy.
This study multiple primary and secondary sources shows that looking at history, archaeological findings, and religious symbols together sources encompass the Kalasan Inscription helps us understand how support from This study gathered data from Primary designs worked together to strengthen the architectural framework of the Kalasan both religious and political power in the Temple, 8th century CE.
Consequently, the Kalasan and reliefs, as well as pertinent artifacts Temple actively influenced the ideological .
ncluding statue fragments, construction dynamics among rulers, religious elites, and materials, and temple desig.
that illustrate society, showcasing how sacred architecture Mahayana Buddhist religious practices.
This served as a means of legitimacy and power study employs classical religious texts, such negotiation within ancient Javanese history.
as doctrinal concepts of Mahayana Buddhism Kalasan Temple as a religious edifice that operated within the context of political and religious legitimization during the oailendra dynasty in the eighth century CE.
The historical method is employed not only to reconstruct past events but also to examine how material artifacts, specifically from Indian and Southeast Asian traditions, as Method This Kawistara.
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Secondary sources were acquired via an examination of scientific literature, encompassing journal articles, archaeological excavation reports, and historical analyses pertaining to the political and religious dynamics of Ancient Mataram and the oailendra Dynasty in Central Java.
The phase of source criticism was executed via external and internal scrutiny.
External criticism seeks to verify the authenticity and physical context of sources, including chronology, materials, inscription techniques, and the properties DISCUSSION Historical Context and Background of Kalasan Temple Construction of architectural materials.
Internal criticism Kalasan Temple is a significant monument is performed to assess the reliability of the from the classical period in the Sleman source material and to discern the political region of the Special Region of Yogyakarta, and religious agendas suggested in the official in proximity to other temple complexes, narratives and symbolic representations of the content.
Temple (Savitri, 2.
The strategic location The third stage, interpretation, seeks meanings of historical sources validated through source criticism.
This integrates an analysis of the Kalasan Inscription as the principal epigraphic source, archaeological relief iconography, alongside religious texts that embody Mahayana Buddhist doctrine and tradition, serving as an interpretive framework for reconstructing the religious and symbolic roles of Kalasan Temple.
This analysis links architectural expression to the political legitimacy strategies of the oailendra Dynasty and elucidates how the templeAos construction conveyed political.
Prambanan Temple Sari signifies that this region was historically a significant religious and political hub during the oailendra dynasty.
The existence of Kalasan Temple is intrinsically linked to the construction of other nearby temples, which exhibit functional and ideological interconnections (Bosch, 1.
The historical significance of the Kalasan Temple is further substantiated by the discovery of the Kalasan Inscription, dated 778 CE, which employs the Sanskrit language and script.
This inscription indicates that King Rakai Panangkaran constructed the temple at the behest of Buddhist priests to venerate the goddess Tara, a significant figure in Mahayana Buddhism (Damai, 2.
Recognized as a sovereign who endorsed Mahayana Buddhism.
Rakai Panangkaran for the society of that era.
The final part, utilized the erection of religious edifices historiography, focuses on creating a clear to manifest his authority.
Kalasan Temple and detailed historical story to understand functioned as a visual and symbolic medium the importance of Kalasan Temple as a Buddhist center, a symbol of power, a part of cultural identity, and the ideas used by the The construction of the temple complex oailendra Dynasty in classical Central Java.
signifies that this site served as a place of (Klokke, worship and as a center for education and the dissemination of religious teachings, including establishing a monastery for monks, as noted in the inscription.
The inscription emphasizes the strategic value Tomy Wijaya.
Fatimah Alauwiyah.
Muhammad Reza Pahlevi Ai Architecture.
Devotion, and Power:The Kalasan .
of religious architecture in the kingdomAos Additionally, the text of the inscription acted ideological agenda, extending beyond mere as a way for the ruling leaders to communicate religious functions to encompass cultural and important ideas to the people, creating a administrative dimensions of the oailendra story about the dynastyAos devotion, the kingAos DynastyAos governance (Khotami et al.
, 2.
responsibility to uphold the dharma, and the The Kalasan Inscription the allocation of simA land by the king to facilitate religious activities in the monastery, kingdomAos role in maintaining both cosmic and social orderAiconcepts that fit with the traditional beliefs about kingship in pre- exemplifying the royal patronage system modern Southeast Asia.
Kalasan Temple as an Emblem of the The inscription indicates the integration of Buddhism into the state framework, wherein backing for religious communities was coupled with the distribution of economic resources and the governance of territorial This administrative data and rich symbolic and manifestation and exhibition of power through religious channels.
The construction of the Kalasan Temple, dedicated to the goddess TArA, exemplifies the oailendra DynastyAos commitment to institutionalizing Mahayana Buddhism while consolidating spiritual and political hegemony in Central Java during the 8th century CE (Mochtar.
The Kalasan Inscription the templeAos construction and functions political authority and religious institutions in the ancient Mataram state.
The inscription acts as a political and religious artifact, showing how the oailendra Dynasty used support for Mahayana Buddhism, including helping the sangha community, to strengthen their power and influence in Central Java.
Kawistara.
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Desember 2025: 458Ai471 ancient Mataram Authority Kalasan Temple amalgamation of political power and religious expression of the oailendra Dynasty in the 8th century CE, especially under the rule of Rakai Panangkaran.
Located in a pivotal area between Buddhist and Hindu power centers in the Kedu-Prambanan plain, the construction of Kalasan Temple exemplifies the oailendraAs political ambition to establish the ideological dominance of Mahayana Buddhism in the face of religious rivalry with Hindu elites linked to the Sanjaya Dynasty (Surpi, 2020.
Santiko, 2.
This site selection exemplifies a spatial-political strategy in the creation of both a sacred landscape and a landscape of power, wherein the erection of monumental structures acts as symbolic assertions of significant cosmological and territorial domains, consistent with the political notions of space and the Ausacred landscapeAy in pre-modern Southeast Asian Kalasan Temple represents intricate aesthetic and ideological symbolism evident in its physical form and architectural The structureAos featuring a stupa atop its main body, embodies the cosmological framework of Mahayana Buddhism, wherein the stupa represents of power, facilitating visual communication Mount Meru as the cosmic center and the between the ruler and the populace, as well as divine realm, a notion similarly represented between the kingdom and the cosmological in Indian and Southeast Asian Buddhist order (Gumulya et al.
, 2.
literary traditions (Soekmono, 1973.
Jordaan & Colless, 2.
The reliefs of devata figures, lotus motifs, and cloud decorations illustrate that merges spiritual and political roles, positioning the king as the guardian of dharma and intermediary between the mundane and transcendent realms, as suggested by the religious legitimacy narrative in the Kalasan Inscription (Widyasanti.
The establishment of monasteries and the allocation of land .
imA) to the monastic community, as documented in the Kalasan Inscription, endeavors of the oailendra Dynasty to create a religious network intertwined with the framework of state authority.
This evidence substantiates that the Kalasan Temple is not a solitary edifice but the nucleus of structured religious activities, providing a foundation for political endorsement for the The conferment of simA illustrates that power was consolidated not solely through military or bureaucratic means but also via religious institutions that expanded kingdomAos societyAos spiritual and social realms.
Consequently.
Kalasan Temple epitomizes state authority manifested through religious structures, illustrating the oailendra DynastyAos approach to consolidating power via the appropriation of sacred sites, the creation of inscriptions, and the erection of monumental buildings Figure 1.
Restoration of Kalasan Temple in progress Source: Property of Tomy Wijaya, 2025 (Santiko, 2013.
Sundberg, 2.
Kalasan Temple The intricate decoration and construction political authority and religious expression techniques signify direct royal patronage, in 8th-century Java, wherein the ruling as the extensive mobilization of economic elite employed religious patronage as a resources and labor was feasible solely by the means of political legitimacy.
Epigraphic ruling elite, reflecting a consistent pattern of and archaeological research suggests that patronage for religious monuments in pre- the construction of Kalasan Temple during modern Southeast Asia.
The architecture of the oailendra Dynasty, specifically under Kalasan Temple serves both as an artistic Rakai Panangkaran, was a political maneuver expression and a tangible representation aimed at consolidating power in the Ancient Tomy Wijaya.
Fatimah Alauwiyah.
Muhammad Reza Pahlevi Ai Architecture.
Devotion, and Power:The Kalasan .
Mataram region through the establishment compassion, and the communal pursuit of enlightenment (Herwindo et al.
, 2.
Mahayana The Buddhism (Soekmono.
In Mahayana Buddhism, sacred figures symbolism in the templeAos architecture like the Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and iconography facilitated the creation and Bodhisattvas, enlightened beings who of a dominant narrative that surpassed defer nirvana to assist others, particularly social and geographical limitations, aligning the goddess Tara, the female Bodhisattva of with the notion of Aucosmological kingshipAy compassion, are pivotal in the iconography in pre-modern Southeast Asian political of the Kalasan Temple (Bhattacharyya, 1.
Consequently.
Kalasan Temple TArA is commonly represented as a crowned serves as both an archaeological artifact and female figure making the varadamudrA a tangible manifestation of a multifaceted political and ideological process, wherein encircled by lotus motifs that signify purity monumental architecture emerged as the and enlightenment, which are also evident principal medium for consolidating power in the reliefs and decorative elements of and expressing royal identity.
the Kalasan Temple.
The oailendra dynasty Impacts of Buddhist Culture and Religion esteemed TArA as an emblem of spiritual The impact of Buddhist culture and religion, particularly from the Mahayana decorations and architecture of Kalasan Temple but also fundamentally embedded in the ideology and cosmology that underpin templeAos This exemplifies one of the earliest and most significant forms of religious architecture from the Ancient Mataram period, illustrating the interplay between spiritual and political authority during the oailendra Dynasty .
e Casparis, 1.
The architecture of Kalasan Temple functions not only as a site for worship but also as a tangible embodiment of the Mahayana perspective, wherein the material realm is perceived as a reflection of elevated spiritual frameworks.
Each aspect of the edifice, encompassing the floor plan, the multi-story design, and the intricate reliefs, embodies fundamental principles of Mahayana Buddhism, including emptiness.
Kawistara.
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The reference to TArAAos veneration in the Kalasan Inscription indicates that the templeAos establishment to reinforce the kingdomAos political and religious dominance.
The architecture and iconography of Kalasan Temple serve as a visual medium to establish the dominant narrative of the oailendra Dynasty during the political and religious power struggles in 8th-century AD Java (Hatmono, 2.
The Kalasan Temple affirm the significant impact of Mahayana fine arts through its intricate (Wirasanti.
Ornamental including miniature stupas, statue niches, and intricate carvings on the exterior walls, exhibit a high level of artistry and a deep comprehension of Buddhist aesthetic principles.
A significant aspect of Mahayana Integration of Indigenous Culture and architecture is the employment of visual Foreign Religion including the mudra positions of statuesAo hands, the crowns adorned by Bodhisattvas, and the depiction of mythological beings such as Makara .
uardian of wate.
and Kala .
uardian of tim.
on doors and niches, which represent protection and transcendence (Hunter, 2.
The lotus flower motif throughout the temple symbolizes spiritual enlightenment that ascends from the earthly realm to the divine.
The buildingAos imposing structure embodies the vertical aesthetics Mahayana suggesting a cosmological hierarchy among the underworld, the human realm, and the domain of the Buddhas (Rosalinda et al.
Consequently.
Kalasan Temple exemplifies the amalgamation of the political authority of the oailendra Dynasty and the spiritual zeal of Mahayana Buddhism.
It was constructed not solely for spiritual purposes but also as an ideological and cultural kingdomAos status as a legitimate spiritual center.
Every element of this temple, including the reliefs, architectural forms, and interior design, contributes to a comprehensive narrative that positions Buddhism as a cohesive force Consequently.
Kalasan Temple serves as a visual and material emblem of Mahayana spirituality, which the oailendra rulers have adeptly integrated into the political framework, culture, and identity of the ancient Mataram kingdom in 8thcentury Java.
Kalasan Temple is a significant early Indonesia, particularly between indigenous Javanese elements and 8th-century Indian Buddhism (Sarkar.
Acculturation should not be perceived merely as a unilateral encounter between two cultures but as a dynamic interaction that yields a novel The local culture was not entirely overwhelmed by foreign influences but assimilated, adapted, and incorporated new elements into its established cosmological and aesthetic framework.
The evidence indicates that ancient Javanese society was capable of selective and innovative responses to external influences (Wintako et al.
, 2.
The profound influence of Mahayana Buddhism from India is evident in the Kalasan Temple (Gupte.
The Bodhisattva figures sculpted on the temple walls, the stupa reliefs embellishing the panels, and the lotus motif symbolizing Mahayana Buddhist iconography.
These elements suggest that priests and merchants did not solely disseminate Buddhism but also did so visually and monumentally through Kalasan Temple served as a transcultural conduit for conveying Indian philosophical teachings in a manner that resonated with the local populace (Eni, 2.
Nonetheless, the Indian influence does not unequivocally prevail over the templeAos artistic and architectural structure.
The Kalasan Tomy Wijaya.
Fatimah Alauwiyah.
Muhammad Reza Pahlevi Ai Architecture.
Devotion, and Power:The Kalasan .
Temple continues to embody the local Javanese relationship between the meanings and their cultural heritage.
The distinctive use of exact location .
The evidence andesite stone, the terraced roof structure substantiates that the local community does resembling the shape of Meru in Javanese not forfeit its identity but enhances it during architecture, and the kala-makara ornaments depicting local mythological creatures at Nonetheless, the Indian influence does the entrance are evident.
These elements not unequivocally prevail over the entirety function as adornments and protective and of the templeAos artistic and architectural cosmological symbols within Nusantara The architectural style of Kalasan traditions (Halim & Herwindo, 2.
temples Temple continues to embody the local and shrines have been known as a means Javanese cultural heritage.
The distinctive of worshipping the gods and goddesses or use of andesite stone, the terraced roof oneAos ancestors, especially in the religions structure resembling the Meru shape in of Hinduism and Buddhism.
Observers often Javanese architecture, and the kala-makara regard the ornaments of these temples as ornaments depicting local mythological mere visual art objects, as eye candy that creatures at the entrance illustrate this may beautify their outward appearance.
(Tjahjono, 2.
These elements function However, when examined more closely, not only as ornamentation but also as these ornaments carry a certain meaning in protective and cosmological symbols within each of the temples.
The aim of this research the Nusantara tradition, affirming that study is to explore the deeper significance during the process of acculturation, the of these ornaments and their location.
This local community retains its identity while research can be classified as qualitative, simultaneously broadening it.
using the descriptive-analytical method.
Employing the Purposive Sampling method regarding ornamentation, eleven temples have been selected that meet the research Both Hinduism and Buddhism have been known to make a division into three worlds, namely the lower, middle and upper spheres.
This division has also shaped the elements of temples into their respective head, body and legs/feet.
Further categorization yields six motifs, all of which can be found in temples in various shapes, consisting of several types of ornament that embellish the three elements mentioned Each of the motifs carries a variety of meanings.
In this research study, the Kawistara.
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Desember 2025: 458Ai471 The architecture and symbolism of Kalasan Temple demonstrates that the Javanese populace of the 8th century were not merely passive recipients of Indian influence but actively engaged as interpreters and processors of it (Soekmono, 1.
Mahayana Buddhism, originating from India, was not adopted in its original form but rather refined, curated, and modified to align with the pre-existing local social framework and cosmology.
This process exemplifies religious Aulocalization,Ay wherein transnational doctrines are redefined within the local cultural framework to achieve significance and broad acceptance within the community.
Symbols like the lotus and Bodhisattva from principles of compassion, enlightenment, and Indian tradition are amalgamated with cosmic order, functioning as an educational local elements such as kala-makara and resource for both the religious community multi-story roof structures, which possess and the general populace.
The existence distinct spiritual significance in Javanese of monasteries and the configuration of culture (Fadliana et al.
, 2.
This procedure ritual spaces suggest that this complex was illustrates the ability of local communities to intended as a hub for religious activities generate new interpretations from external and doctrinal education.
Kalasan Temple, symbols, integrating them into their cultural through rituals, pilgrimages, and symbolic This adaptation incorporates new values within collective memory and spiritual identity of a familiar ethical and spiritual framework.
classical Javanese society, establishing it as Consequently.
Kalasan Temple is historical both a sacred site and a hub for continuous evidence of the Javanese peopleAos ability to ideological and spiritual transmission.
transform external influences into unique, lasting cultural manifestations.
Kalasan Temple serves as a religious structure and a political instrument the royal Kalasan Temple serves as a place of elite utilizes to legitimize their power.
In the worship and a multifunctional center for the 8th-century Old Mataram kingdom, temple education and dissemination of Mahayana construction was a calculated strategy to Buddhism (Jordaan, 1.
Temple edifices disseminate Buddhism, implemented by the served as a significant medium for visual ruling elite to consolidate spiritual authority religious communication in an 8th-century society predominantly characterized by oral aristocrats demonstrated individual devotion tradition and lacking widespread literacy.
Ornaments like Bodhisattva reliefs, stupas, by supporting Mahayana Buddhism and and lotus motifs serve aesthetic purposes financing temple construction.
The temple and convey symbolic teachings regarding functioned as a visual representation of wisdom, compassion, and the journey to the unity between the king as AucakravartinAy .
niversal kin.
and the essence of the design of temples renders them a public Dharma (Kapadia, 2.
The construction of space accessible to diverse groups, including the Kalasan Temple functioned as a symbolic individuals who cannot read sacred texts in Sanskrit or Old Javanese (Subandi, 2.
political stability, unifying social factions.
Kalasan Temple functions as a conduit and disseminating state ideology via religious for religious education, internalizing the It manifested as a concrete principles of Mahayana Buddhism through representation of social, ideological, and visual experiences and sacred environments.
spiritual integration strategies actualized Reliefs.
Bodhisattva statues, and cosmological through monumental architecture (Degroot, symbols like stupas and lotuses embody the The Monarchs Tomy Wijaya.
Fatimah Alauwiyah.
Muhammad Reza Pahlevi Ai Architecture.
Devotion, and Power:The Kalasan .
Kalasan Temple exemplifies the intricate cultural interplay between India and Java.
operate effectively within the wider sociocultural context.
exhibits foreign influences and demonstrates This studyAos comprehension of sacred architecture as reinterpret the significance and purpose of an ideological and political resource in early new doctrines within their cultural context.
Javanese history.
This research highlights The acculturation observed in Kalasan the role of temples as dynamic institutions Temple exemplifies that cultural processes that facilitated interactions among rulers, are neither linear nor dominant.
they are religious elites, and society through the the outcome of negotiation.
In this context, integration of historical, archaeological, the temple serves as a nexus between the prominent civilizations of Asia and the than merely as passive artistic monuments.
indigenous identity of the archipelago.
The study underscores the necessity of This historical accomplishment enhances the wealth of Indonesian architecture, like Kalasan within their broader religious spirituality, and cultural identity.
and political networks to enhance the religious-semiotic CONCLUSION Mahayana Buddhism as a legitimizing framework in premodern Kalasan Temple exemplifies that eighth- Southeast Asia.
This viewpoint facilitates century JavaAos religious architecture served comparative research on Buddhist temple not merely as a sacred space but also as a complexes in Java and elsewhere, especially strategic tool for expressing and legitimizing in analyzing how sacred space was utilized dynastic power.
The temple, founded under to negotiate power, authority, and cultural the auspices of the oailendra dynasty during identity across various regional contexts.
Rakai PanangkaranAos reign, functioned as a TArA Bhavanam, institutionalizing Mahayana
BIBLIOGRAPHY