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International Journal of
Humanities, Education, and Social Sciences

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https://doi.org/10.58578/IJHESS.v2i3.3615

THE PREVENTION OF ELECTORAL VIOLENCE: A PANACEA
FOR ACHIEVING CREDIBLE ELECTION IN NIGERIA

Augustina Onyedikachi Nnajieto & Charles Chibuzor Nnajieto
Alvan Ikoku Federal University of Education, Owerri, Nigeria
augustina.nnajieto@alvanikoku.edu.ng; charles.nnajieto@alvanikoku.edu.ng

Submitted:
Jul 20, 2024

Article Info:
Revised:
Accepted:
Aug 3, 2024
Aug 6, 2024

Published:
Aug 9, 2024

Abstract
Electoral violence is a critical challenge to democratic processes in Nigeria,
undermining the credibility and integrity of elections. This paper explores the
underlying causes of electoral violence and proposes strategies for its
prevention to achieve credible elections. Drawing on Social Identity Theory
(SIT), the study highlights how group dynamics and social identities shape
behaviour and contribute to conflict during elections. Factors such as political
exclusion, economic disparities, and historical grievances are identified as
primary drivers of violence. The paper argues for a multifaceted approach to
prevention, including fostering inclusive political representation, promoting
intergroup dialogue, challenging harmful social norms, and supporting electoral
education. Additionally, the role of responsible media, institutional legitimacy,
and nonviolent conflict resolution are emphasized. By addressing the root
causes and implementing these strategies, Nigeria can enhance the credibility of
its elections and ensure a stable and democratic political environment. The
study underscores the importance of understanding social dynamics and
adopting comprehensive measures to mitigate electoral violence effectively.
Keywords: Electoral Violence, Prevention, Panacea, Credible Election,
Strategies

Volume 2, Issue 3, November 2024; 337-350
https://ejournal.yasin-alsys.org/index.php/IJHESS
IJHESS Journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

Augustina Onyedikachi Nnajieto & Charles Chibuzor Nnajieto

Introduction
Elections are fundamental to democratic governance, serving as the primary mechanism
for the peaceful transfer of power and enabling citizens to voice their political preferences
and select their leaders (Dahl, 1989; Diamond, 1999). A free, fair, and credible election is
crucial for the legitimacy of any democratic government, fostering public trust and ensuring
that the elected leaders truly represent the will of the people (Lindberg, 2006). However,
the credibility and integrity of elections can be severely undermined when they are plagued
by violence.
Electoral violence is characterized as any act that disrupts the established rules and
regulations governing the electoral process through intimidation, coercion, or physical
harm. This phenomenon poses significant threats to democratic governance and societal
peace (Vellinga, 2011; Ogundiya, 2009). It encompasses a broad range of actions, including
physical assaults, destruction of property, and psychological threats aimed at voters,
candidates, electoral officials, and other stakeholders (Collier and Vicente, 2012). Such
violence can occur at any stage of the electoral cycle—before, during, or after the voting
process (Bekoe, 2011).
The impact of electoral violence extends beyond the immediate disruption of the electoral
process. It affects voter turnout by creating an atmosphere of fear and insecurity,
discouraging citizens from participating in the electoral process (Bratton, 2008).
Additionally, electoral violence undermines public trust in democratic institutions, leading
to a crisis of legitimacy for the elected government and eroding confidence in the electoral
system as a whole (Hoglund, 2009). This erosion of trust can have long-term consequences
for political stability, as citizens become increasingly disillusioned with democratic
processes and may resort to alternative, and often violent, means of expressing their
political grievances (Hoffman and Melly, 2015).
Moreover, electoral violence often involves a range of perpetrators, including political party
supporters, militia groups, and even state security forces, each with their own motives and
methods (Onapajo, Uzodike, and Whetho, 2011). The motives behind electoral violence
can vary widely, from attempts to influence the election outcome by reducing opposition
votes to efforts to delegitimize the electoral process altogether (Laakso, 2007). This
multifaceted nature of electoral violence makes it a complex issue that requires
comprehensive and multifaceted approaches to prevent and mitigate its occurrence.

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Augustina Onyedikachi Nnajieto & Charles Chibuzor Nnajieto

In Nigeria, electoral violence has been a persistent challenge, with significant incidents
recorded in various election cycles. The 2011 elections, for instance, were marked by
widespread violence, resulting in numerous deaths and displacement of people (Lewis,
2011). Similarly, the 2015 and 2019 elections witnessed acts of violence that disrupted the
electoral process and raised serious concerns about the country's ability to conduct credible
elections (Adigun, 2017; Human Rights Watch, 2003).
Given the profound impact of electoral violence on democratic governance and societal
peace, it is imperative to explore effective strategies for its prevention. Strengthening legal
and institutional frameworks, enhancing the capacity and independence of electoral bodies,
and promoting civic education and voter awareness are critical steps toward achieving
credible elections. Additionally, fostering political will and commitment to peaceful
electoral practices among political leaders is essential for creating a conducive environment
for free and fair elections (Omotola, 2010).

An Overview of the Conceptual Framework
According to Bekoe (2012), electoral violence encompasses a broad range of actions
intended to influence the outcome of an election through force or intimidation. This
includes physical assaults, destruction of property, and psychological threats aimed at
voters, candidates, electoral officials, and other stakeholders. Such acts are not in tandem
with the established norms of the society. Ahamefula and Nnajieto (2005) attested to this
thus; crime entails activities that involve breaking the law. It is an illegal act or activity that
can be punished by law. There is a difference between deviant behaviour and crime, while
deviance is behaviour that is at variance with the norms and values of the society, crime is
the violation of the criminal code.
There is no universally accepted definition of electoral violence, but scholars have provided
various perspectives. Hoglund (2009) states that "electoral violence is separated from other
forms of political violence by a combination of timing and motive." The timing aspect
relates to violence carried out during the election period, and the objective is to influence
the election process and, by extension, the election outcome. Similarly, Laakso (2007) notes
that "electoral violence is an activity motivated by an attempt to affect the results of the
election"—either by manipulating the electoral procedures and participation or by
contesting the legitimacy of the results.

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Additional definitions come from Kehaila and Bardall. Kehaila (2014) distinguishes eight
categories based on the perpetrators and reasons for violence:
1. Party-on-Party Electoral Violence
2. Party-on-Voter Electoral Violence
3. Party-on-State Electoral Violence
4. Voter-on-Voter Electoral Violence
5. Voter-on-State Electoral Violence
6. State-on-Voter Electoral Violence
7. State-on-Party Electoral Violence
8. State-on-State Electoral Violence
Bardall (2016) provides a rights-based definition, describing electoral violence as a subtype
of political violence aimed at controlling or oppressing an individual's or group's right to
participate in political processes and institutions. This violence can involve emotional,
social, and economic force, coercion, or pressure, as well as physical and sexual harm. It
may occur in public or private settings, including within the family, the general community,
online, and via media, or be perpetrated or condoned by the state.
The perpetrators of electoral violence vary widely, including political party supporters,
militia groups, and state security forces (Bekoe, 2011; Onapajo, Uzodike, and Whetho,
2011). The ultimate goal of this multifaceted vice is to disrupt the electoral process, deter
participation, or manipulate the results to favour a particular interest group (Aghedo and
Osumah, 2015).

Credible Election
The credibility of an election is vital to the health and functioning of a democratic society.
It ensures that the government derives its authority from the consent of the governed,
reinforcing the legitimacy of political institutions (Lindberg, 2006). When elections are free,
fair, and transparent, they instill public confidence in the electoral system and the political
process in general (Elklit and Reynolds, 2005).
Firstly, credible elections facilitate the peaceful transition of power. In a democracy, the
losing party must accept the results, trusting that the process was fair. This acceptance is

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Augustina Onyedikachi Nnajieto & Charles Chibuzor Nnajieto

crucial to maintaining political stability and avoiding the kind of post-election violence seen
in many countries where electoral integrity is questionable (Collier and Vicente, 2014). For
instance, the acceptance of election results in Ghana's 2012 elections was pivotal in
maintaining peace and stability, contrasting with the violent aftermath of Kenya's 2007
elections, where disputed results led to widespread violence (Cheeseman, Lynch, and Willis,
2014).
Secondly, credible elections enhance political accountability. Elected officials are more
likely to be responsive to the needs and concerns of their constituents if they believe their
political survival depends on it. This responsiveness is a fundamental aspect of democratic
governance, driving policy decisions that reflect the will of the masses and studies have
shown that in countries with credible electoral systems, there is a stronger link between
public policy and public preferences (Powell, 2004).
Moreover, the importance of credible elections extends to social cohesion. When citizens
believe in the fairness of the electoral process, they are more likely to engage in civic
activities and contribute to societal development (Norris, 2014). Conversely, perceptions of
electoral fraud or manipulation can lead to disenchantment and apathy, thereby
undermining social trust and peaceful co-existence. The 2011 elections in Nigeria, for
example, saw increased voter turnout and public participation due to perceived
improvements in the electoral process, fostering greater social cohesion (Lewis, 2011).
Furthermore, credible elections are crucial for attracting foreign investment and fostering
economic development. According to Collier and Hoeffler (2005), a peaceful environment
and good governance are key factors that investors consider when making decisions.
Electoral violence and the absence of peaceful coexistence can deter investment, hinder
progress, and exacerbate poverty and inequality. This was also captured rightly by Nnajieto
and Ahamefula (2015) that, there are numerous factors responsible for the poverty
incidence. The causes are ubiquitous and in the psyche of the ruled and the rulers. While
the ruled struggle to escape the poverty circle, the rulers are conscious of sliding back to
experience poverty; thereby promoting corruption, misrule, injustice and other social vices.
In summary, the credibility of elections underpins the legitimacy of democratic governance,
fosters political accountability, enhances social cohesion, and attracts foreign investment,
all of which are essential for sustainable development and peace (Diamond, 2008).

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Ensuring the credibility of elections, therefore, should be a paramount objective for all
democratic societies.

An Analysis of Indices of Electoral Violence in Nigeria
Electoral violence has been a persistent challenge in Nigeria, undermining the democratic
process and posing a significant threat to political stability. Understanding and
contextualizing our antecedents by examining recent incidents of electoral violence are
crucial for devising effective strategies to prevent it.
The Antecedents
Nigeria’s past experiences of electoral violence date back to the pre-independence era. The
first notable instance occurred during the 1964–1965 federal and regional elections. These
elections were characterized by widespread violence, intimidation, and rigging, leading to
political instability and contributing to the first military coup in 1966. The violence
associated with these elections highlighted the deep-seated ethnic and regional tensions
within the country (Sklar, 1963; Post and Vickers, 1973).
The return of civilian rule in 1979 did little to curb electoral violence. The 1983 elections
were marred by significant electoral malpractices and violence, prompting another military
takeover (Joseph, 1987). This cycle of violence continued into the Fourth Republic, which
began in 1999 after years of military rule. The 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015, 2019, and
2023 elections were all dented by various degrees of violence. For example, Human Rights
Watch reported that the 2007 elections were among the most violent in Nigeria’s history,
with over 300 people killed in election-related violence (Human Rights Watch, 2007).
Recent Incidents
Despite some improvements, recent past elections in Nigeria have not been free from
violence. The 2015 general elections, although praised for the peaceful transition of power
from Goodluck Jonathan to Muhammadu Buhari, witnessed significant violence,
particularly in the pre-election period. The National Human Rights Commission
documented 58 election-related deaths between December 2014 and February 2015
(National Human Rights Commission, 2015).
The 2019 general elections also experienced violence, with numerous reports of clashes
between political party supporters, attacks on polling units/stations, and intimidation of

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Augustina Onyedikachi Nnajieto & Charles Chibuzor Nnajieto

voters and electoral officials. The European Union Election Observation Mission reported
that the elections were marked by a troubling level of violence and intimidation, especially
in states like Rivers and Lagos (European Union Election Observation Mission, 2019).
These incidents not only undermined the credibility of the elections but also discouraged
voters from participating as many citizens feared for their safety.
In addition to the general elections, state and local elections have also seen significant
violence. For instance, the November 2020 gubernatorial elections in Ondo State were
marred by violent clashes between supporters of the major political parties contesting in
the elections, resulting in several injuries and fatalities (Premium Times, 2020). Similarly,
the 2021 local government elections in Kaduna State witnessed violent incidents, including
the killing of a youth leader and attacks on election officials and materials (Daily Trust,
2021).
The impact of these violent incidents on the electoral process cannot be overstated. They
lead to the loss of lives, destruction of property, and disruption of the electoral process.
Voter turnout is often adversely affected, as fear of violence deters citizens from exercising
their right to vote. Moreover, electoral violence erodes public confidence in the democratic
process, fostering a sense of mistrust, deprivation, and apathy toward political participation
(Bekoe, 2012).

Addressing Electoral Violence
Nigeria’s recent experiences with electoral violence underscore the urgent need for
comprehensive strategies to prevent such violence. Addressing the root causes and
implementing effective preventive measures are essential for ensuring credible elections
and sustaining democratic governance in Nigeria. These strategies may include the reform
of electoral laws to ensure transparency, accountability, and fairness; the strengthening of
institutions responsible for election management and security; and the promotion of civic
education to encourage peaceful political participation (Agbaje and Adejumobi, 2006).
Reform of Electoral Laws
Reforming electoral laws is crucial for creating a legal framework that supports free and fair
elections. This includes establishing clear regulations for the conduct of elections, setting
stringent penalties for electoral offenses, and ensuring that laws are consistently enforced.

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By enhancing the transparency and accountability of the electoral process, reforms can help
to restore public confidence and deter potential perpetrators of electoral violence. Ensuring
that electoral laws are comprehensive and inclusive will also address issues of voter
disenfranchisement and enhance the credibility of the electoral process (Agbaje and
Adejumobi, 2006).
Strengthening Institutions
Effective election management relies on robust institutions that are capable of
administering elections impartially and efficiently. This involves not only the electoral
commissions but also the judiciary and security agencies. Strengthening these institutions
requires adequate funding, capacity building, and ensuring their independence from
political interference. Empowering institutions to act decisively against electoral
malpractices and violence is critical for maintaining law and order during elections.
Additionally, enhancing the professionalism and neutrality of security forces can prevent
them from being used as tools for political intimidation and violence (Daxecker, 2012).
Promotion of Civic Education
Civic education plays a vital role in fostering a culture of peaceful political participation.
Educating citizens about their electoral rights and responsibilities, the importance of
nonviolent participation, and the mechanisms available for addressing grievances can
reduce the likelihood of electoral violence. Civic education programs should target various
groups, including voters, political party members, and security personnel, to ensure a broad
understanding of democratic principles and the electoral process. By promoting critical
thinking and informed decision-making, civic education can empower citizens to hold
leaders accountable and demand transparency and fairness in elections.
Addressing Socio-Economic Inequalities
Socio-economic inequalities are often at the heart of electoral violence, as marginalized
groups may resort to violence to express their dissatisfaction with the status quo.
Addressing these inequalities involves creating economic opportunities, improving access
to education, and fostering inclusive political processes. Economic empowerment
programs, job creation initiatives, and educational reforms can provide marginalized
communities with the tools they need to participate meaningfully in the political process.
Inclusive political processes that give voice to underrepresented groups can help to mitigate

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Augustina Onyedikachi Nnajieto & Charles Chibuzor Nnajieto

feelings of disenfranchisement and reduce the likelihood of violence (Collier and Vicente,
2014).
Creating Economic Opportunities
Creating economic opportunities is essential for addressing one of the root causes of
electoral violence: economic frustration. Job creation initiatives, support for small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and investment in infrastructure can stimulate economic
growth and provide citizens with alternatives to violence. Economic stability can reduce the
appeal of violent tactics as a means of achieving political goals, thereby contributing to a
more peaceful electoral environment.
Improving Access to Education
Education is a powerful tool for promoting social cohesion and reducing conflict.
Improving access to quality education can equip individuals with the skills and knowledge
needed to engage constructively in the political process. Educational reforms should focus
on increasing literacy rates, reducing dropout rates, and ensuring that education is
accessible to all segments of society, including marginalized groups. By fostering a wellinformed electorate, education can enhance democratic participation and reduce the risk of
electoral violence (Nnajieto and Ahamefula, 2015).
Fostering Inclusive Political Processes
Inclusive political processes are essential for ensuring that all groups in society have a voice
in the electoral process. This involves creating mechanisms for political participation that
are accessible to women, youth, ethnic minorities, and other marginalized groups. Political
parties should be encouraged to adopt inclusive policies and practices, and electoral
systems should be designed to reflect the diversity of the population. By fostering
inclusivity, the political process can become more representative and less prone to conflict
(Collier and Vicente, 2014).

Strategies for Preventing Electoral Violence and Achieving Credible Elections
Electoral violence prevention can be informed by sociological theories, particularly Social
Identity Theory (SIT). SIT posits that group dynamics and social identity influence
behaviour, including conflict and violence. In the electoral context, SIT suggests that:

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•

Political affiliations and group membership shape behaviour and attitudes: Political
parties and affiliations create strong social identities, which can drive competitive
and sometimes hostile interactions between different groups.

•

Competition for power and resources can lead to intergroup tensions and violence:
The struggle for political control often heightens tensions and can lead to violence,
especially in contexts where resources are scarce or unequally distributed.

•

Social categorization and intergroup favouritism can fuel discrimination and
conflict: People tend to favour their own groups over others, leading to
discriminatory practices and conflict during elections.

•

Social influence and norms can either perpetuate violence or promote peaceful
behaviour: Group norms and social influences play a critical role in either escalating
or mitigating violence.

Building on SIT, strategies for preventing electoral violence can include:
•

Fostering inclusive political representation and addressing social inequalities:
Ensuring that all social groups have a voice in the political process can reduce
feelings of marginalization and the potential for violence.

•

Encouraging intergroup dialogue and cooperation: Facilitating communication and
cooperation between different political and social groups can help to reduce
tensions and build mutual understanding.

•

Challenging harmful social norms and promoting peaceful values: Campaigns and
interventions aimed at changing harmful social norms and promoting peace can be
effective in preventing violence.

•

Supporting electoral education and critical thinking: Educating voters about their
rights and the importance of peaceful participation can empower them to make
informed decisions and resist incitement to violence.

•

Promoting responsible media reporting and balanced coverage: Ensuring that
media coverage is fair and balanced can help to prevent the spread of
misinformation and reduce tensions.

•

Strengthening institutional legitimacy and electoral integrity: Building strong,
transparent, and accountable electoral institutions can enhance public trust and
reduce the likelihood of violence.

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Augustina Onyedikachi Nnajieto & Charles Chibuzor Nnajieto

•

Encouraging nonviolent conflict resolution and peaceful protest: Promoting
nonviolent methods of addressing grievances can provide alternatives to violence
and help maintain peace.

As a complex phenomenon bedeviling society, a good understanding of the various causes
of electoral violence is crucial to planning and implementing strategies. Some of these
factors that engender violence during elections are summarized below:
1. Societal Factors: Exclusion of some ethnic and religious groups from positions of
power can be a cardinal cause of electoral violence. Daxecker (2012, 2014)
emphasizes that political exclusion based on ethnicity or religion is a significant
driver of conflict.
2. Political Factors: Exploitations and feelings of disenfranchisement can lead to
unhealthy rivalries and competitions among opposition parties, contributing to
electoral violence.
3. Economic Factors: Economic inequalities, high rates of unemployment, hunger,
and poverty are also major contributors to electoral violence. When people lack
access to economic opportunities, they may resort to violence as a means of
expressing their discontent (Ake, 1996).
4. Historical Factors: Historical grievances based on perceived injustices, betrayals,
and dehumanization can also lead to electoral violence. Fjelde and Höglund (2016)
note that past conflicts and unresolved grievances often resurface during elections.
Consequently, based on the catalogue of causes of violence during and after elections in
Nigeria, some obvious consequences may surface:
•

Dispossession of legitimate and qualified candidates from assuming office:
Electoral violence can prevent competent candidates from being elected,
undermining the democratic process.

•

Deterrence of potential voters: Fear of violence can discourage people, especially
women, from voting, leading to lower voter turnout and less representative
outcomes.

•

Usurpation of power by unscrupulous politicians: Violence can enable corrupt
politicians to manipulate election outcomes and gain power illegitimately.

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To ensure credible elections, electoral procedures must reveal the following:
1. Transparency: Clearly stated procedures without a breakdown in communication
are essential for ensuring transparency in the electoral process.
2. Inclusiveness: Ensuring that all eligible voters can participate actively in the election
is crucial for legitimacy.
3. Free and Fair Elections: No shady deals or manipulation of any kind should be
allowed.
4. Accountability: Mechanisms responsible for addressing irregularities must be in
motion.
5. Authenticity of Results: The outcome of every election must be verifiable,
authentic, and reflect the will of the masses.
6. Acceptance by All: The results must be acceptable to all stakeholders, including the
international community.
However, achieving a credible election requires deploying certain preventive strategies:
•

Institutional Legitimacy: Establishing an autonomous and independent election
commission ensures impartiality and reduces favouritism.

•

Social Inclusion: Including all eligible voters in all communities helps to prevent
disenfranchisement.

•

Neutrality of Security Forces: Ensuring that security forces operate neutrally
provides a safe environment for voters and reduces intimidation.

•

Establishment of Social Norms: Screening eligible candidates thoroughly before
participation promotes integrity and maintains social order.

•

Freedom of the Press: Ensuring unbiased media reporting enhances decisionmaking and feedback from the public.

•

Voter Education: Educating voters about their rights and obligations promotes
informed and responsible participation.

•

Global Monitoring: International bodies should observe the electoral process to
ensure compliance with global standards.

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•

Post-Election Audits: Conducting regular post-election reviews helps to establish
the integrity of electoral procedures and provides insights for future improvements
(Alvarez, Hall, and Hyde, 2008).

Conclusion
In conclusion, adopting these strategies can serve as a panacea for achieving credible
elections in Nigeria and other countries. By addressing the root causes of electoral violence
and implementing effective preventive measures, it is possible to ensure free, fair, and
transparent elections that reflect the will of the people.

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