Open Global Scientific Journal 5 .
: 86-100 2026 Contents lists available at openscie.
E-ISSN: 2961-7952
Open Global Scientific Journal DOI: 10.
70110/ogsj.
Journal homepage: https://openglobalsci.
Artemia as a Strategic Live Feed in Fish and Shrimp Hatcheries: Nutritional Value.
Enrichment Technologies, and Implications for Larval Growth and Survival: A Literature Review Sheny Permatasari1* 1 Technology and Management of Applied Aquaculture.
School of Vocational Studies.
IPB University.
Indonesia *Correspondence E-mail: shenypermata@apps.
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article History:
Received 30 April 2026 Revised 26 June 2026 Accepted 26 June 2026 Published 28 June 2026 Background: Live feed availability is a critical factor determining the success of fish and shrimp hatchery operations.
Among various live feeds.
Artemia remains one of the most widely used organisms due to its suitable particle size, high digestibility, ease of storage, and capacity for nutritional Aims: This review aimed to synthesize current knowledge regarding the nutritional value of Artemia, its application in hatchery systems, enrichment strategies, and its effects on larval growth and survival in commercially important aquaculture species.
Methods: A systematic literature review was conducted following a structured search of peer-reviewed articles published between 2015 and Relevant literature was retrieved from Google Scholar.
ScienceDirect.
SpringerLink, and other scientific databases using predefined keywords related to Artemia, enrichment technologies, hatchery management, and larval performance.
Studies were screened based on relevance to fish and shrimp larviculture, nutritional enhancement, and biological performance indicators.
Results: The reviewed studies consistently demonstrated that Artemia significantly improves larval growth, specific growth rate, size uniformity, and survival in various aquaculture species, including Litopenaeus vannamei.
Penaeus monodon.
Oreochromis niloticus.
Lates calcarifer, and Clarias gariepinus.
Furthermore, enrichment with highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA.
, omega-3 fatty acids, microalgae, probiotics, synbiotics, vitamins, and phytogenic compounds substantially enhanced the nutritional quality of Artemia, resulting in improved growth performance, immune competence, stress tolerance, and disease Conclusions: Artemia remains an indispensable live feed in modern hatchery systems.
Advances in enrichment technologies have transformed Artemia from a conventional live feed into an effective nutrient delivery Keywords:
Aquaculture.
Artemia.
Enrichment technologies.
Hatchery.
Larval performance.
platform capable of enhancing larval performance and hatchery Future development should focus on strengthening domestic Artemia production, improving enrichment efficiency, and integrating biosecure hatchery management practices to support sustainable aquaculture development.
To cite this article: Permatasari.
Artemia as a Strategic Live Feed in Fish and Shrimp Hatcheries: Nutritional Value.
Enrichment Technologies, and Implications for Larval Growth and Survival (A Literature Revie.
Open Global Scientific Journal, 5.
, 86Ae100.
This article is under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.
0 International (CC BY-SA 4.
License.
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.
0 International License Copyright A2026 by author/s Introduction The aquaculture sector is one of the major contributors to national fisheries production and plays a significant role in providing animal protein, generating employment opportunities, and contributing to foreign exchange earnings.
In recent years, economically important cultured species such as Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vanname.
, black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodo.
, and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticu.
have shown continuous production growth in response to increasing domestic and export market demands (Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, 2.
The success of farming these commodities largely depends on the availability of high-quality seed produced through efficient and sustainable hatchery operations.
Despite significant advances in hatchery technology, the larval stage remains one of the most critical phases in seed production due to its relatively high mortality rate.
During early development, larvae possess an immature digestive system, limited swimming ability, and highly specific nutritional requirements that rapidly change according to developmental stage.
Consequently, larvae are extremely sensitive to both environmental conditions and feed quality (Conceiyyo et al.
, 2.
Inappropriate feed particle size, poor nutrient digestibility, and deficiencies of essential fatty acids are frequently identified as major factors limiting larval survival and growth in hatchery systems (Martynez-Soler et al.
, 2.
In this context, live feed continues to play a crucial role as the primary nutritional source for fish and shrimp larvae.
Compared with formulated feeds, live feed offers several advantages, including appropriate particle size, active movement that stimulates feeding behavior, and superior digestibility.
Among the various live feed organisms used in aquaculture.
Artemia spp.
is the most widely utilized Artemia nauplii have been commercially employed since the 1970s and remain an essential component of marine fish, freshwater fish, and crustacean hatcheries (Lavens & Sorgeloos, 1.
The popularity of Artemia is attributable to several biological and technical advantages.
Artemia cysts can be stored for extended periods, hatched on demand, produce nauplii of relatively uniform size, and contain high levels of protein and lipids.
Furthermore.
Artemia possesses excellent bioencapsulation capabilities, allowing enrichment with nutrients and functional compounds such as highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA.
, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), vitamins, probiotics, immunostimulants, and microalgae prior to administration to larvae (Lavens & Sorgeloos, 1999.
Samat et al.
, 2.
These characteristics make Artemia a strategic live feed during critical stages of larval Numerous studies have demonstrated that Artemia can significantly improve larval biological performance in terms of both growth and survival.
In Pacific white shrimp, nutrient-enriched Artemia has been reported to enhance growth performance, specific growth rate, physiological quality, and postlarval survival (Martynez-Soler et al.
, 2.
Likewise, the combination of Artemia with microalgae or HUFA-rich lipid sources has been shown to improve growth, stress resistance, and physiological performance in black tiger shrimp postlarvae (Immanuel et al.
, 2004.
Jaseera et al.
, 2.
In Nile tilapia and Asian seabass larvae.
Artemia supplementation has also been associated with increased body length growth and improved rearing success during early developmental stages (Jusadi et al.
, 2004.
Kailasam et al.
, 2.
Despite these advantages, the utilization of Artemia in Indonesia still faces several challenges.
Most of the national demand for Artemia cysts is met through imports, making hatchery industries vulnerable to fluctuations in global prices, product quality, and supply chain disruptions.
Furthermore, the use of Artemia in many hatcheries remains largely conventional, involving simple hatching and direct feeding without standardized enrichment strategies.
This is particularly important because the nutritional quality of Artemia is influenced by strain origin, naupliar age, hatching conditions, and enrichment protocols applied before feeding to larvae (Lavens & Sorgeloos, 1999.
Martynez-Soler et al.
, 2.
Although numerous studies have investigated the use of Artemia in specific fish and shrimp species, comprehensive syntheses integrating its nutritional characteristics, enrichment technologies, and biological effects across multiple aquaculture commodities remain limited.
Existing reviews generally focus on either nutritional enrichment or species-specific applications without providing a broader evaluation of the role of Artemia in contemporary hatchery systems.
Furthermore, information regarding the opportunities and challenges associated with Artemia utilization in tropical aquaculture, particularly in Indonesia, has not been systematically synthesized.
Therefore, a comprehensive review is required to provide scientific evidence supporting the optimization of Artemia-based feeding strategies in modern hatchery operations.
On the other hand, comprehensive review studies specifically synthesizing the effects of Artemia on the growth and survival of fish and shrimp larvae, particularly within the context of tropical aquaculture in Indonesia, remain relatively limited.
Most previous publications have discussed Artemia broadly as a live feed without comparatively evaluating its effectiveness across cultured species or reviewing strategies for improving its nutritional quality.
Such scientific syntheses are important to support evidence-based decision-making among hatchery operators, researchers, and policymakers.
Methods 1 Review Protocol This study employed a systematic literature review approach following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2.
The review was designed to evaluate the nutritional value of Artemia, enrichment technologies, and their impacts on the growth and survival of fish and shrimp larvae in hatchery systems.
2 Literature Search Strategy Relevant studies were retrieved from Google Scholar.
ScienceDirect.
SpringerLink.
Scopus-indexed journals, and other scientific databases.
Searches were conducted using combinations of the following keywords: AuArtemiaAy.
AuArtemia enrichmentAy.
Aulive feedAy.
AuhatcheryAy.
Aufish larvaeAy.
Aushrimp larvaeAy.
Augrowth performanceAy.
Ausurvival rateAy.
AubioencapsulationAy.
AuHUFAAy.
AuprobioticsAy, and AuaquacultureAy.
3 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Studies were included if they:
A were published between 2015 and 2025.
A were peer-reviewed journal articles.
A investigated Artemia utilization in fish or shrimp hatcheries.
A evaluated growth performance, survival, nutrition, or enrichment strategies.
Studies were excluded if they:
A focused on non-aquaculture organisms.
A lacked experimental or review relevance.
A were conference abstracts, editorials, or unpublished reports.
did not provide sufficient methodological information.
4 Data Extraction and Analysis Data extracted from eligible studies included species cultured, enrichment treatments, growth indicators, survival rate, and major findings.
Information was subsequently categorized into:
Nutritional characteristics of Artemia.
Growth performance responses.
Survival responses.
Enrichment technologies.
Challenges and future prospects.
The collected information was synthesized using a descriptive-comparative approach.
Figure 1.
Prisma Flow Diagram Results and Discussion 1 Effects of Artemia on the Growth Performance of Fish and Shrimp Larvae The literature review revealed that the use of Artemia as a live feed exerts a positive effect on the growth performance of fish and shrimp larvae across various aquaculture species.
Growth enhancement is generally reflected by improvements in final body weight, total length, specific growth rate (SGR), and size uniformity of larvae and juveniles.
These benefits are primarily associated with the high protein content, balanced essential amino acid profile, and the ability of Artemia to serve as a carrier of additional nutrients through enrichment techniques.
Several studies have also demonstrated that Artemia enriched with highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), omega-3 fatty acids, and microalgae promotes superior growth performance compared with non-enriched Artemia or formulated feeds.
A summary of studies investigating the effects of Artemia on the growth performance of fish and shrimp larvae is presented in Table 1.
Table 1.
The survival rate (SR) of African catfish larvae during the rearing period Number Experimental Artemia Treatment Effects on Growth References Species Performance Various species Artemia enrichment Improved growth Ramena et al.
performance associated with increased DHA and EPA contents Clarias Synbiotic-enriched Enhanced larval growth Lingoh et al.
microstomus y Artemia and gut health while Clarias improving feed efficiency Litopenaeus Synbiotic bioEnhanced growth Yudiati & encapsulated Artemia Azhar, 2024 Litopenaeus NutrientIncreased specific growth Nur et al.
supplemented Artemia rate (SGR) and postlarval Lates calcarifer n-3 HUFA-enriched Increased final weight and Pham et al.
Artemia specific growth rate Litopenaeus HUFA-enriched Improved growth Martynezvannamei Artemia performance and Soler et al.
physiological quality of Litopenaeus Artemia enriched with Produced the best growth Nurbaeti & performance among Putra, 2023 Litopenaeus Different feeding Significantly affected Kahfi et al.
levels of Artemia growth performance Litopenaeus HUFA- and seleniumIncreased final length.
Pham et al.
enriched Artemia final weight, and specific growth rate Carassius Spirulina-enriched Improved growth Elshafey et and canthaxanthinperformance, , 2023 enriched Artemia pigmentation, health status, and immune Various species Enriched Artemia and Improved growth Joshua et al.
Moina Litopenaeus Artemia enriched with Improved growth Amrullah et Sargassum extract performance and immune , 2022 status of postlarvae Gadus Penaeus Litopenaeus Litopenaeus Macrobrachium Litopenaeus Macrobrachium Clarias HUFA- and DHAenriched Artemia Artemia combined Aurantiochytrium Artemia, liquid artificial feed, and powdered artificial Artemia enriched with n-3 LC-PUFA Artemia combined with Chaetoceros Lysine- and methionine-enriched Artemia Artemia as larval feed Artemia nauplii combined with formulated feed Improved overall growth Enhanced larval growth Choi et al.
Jaseera et al.
Produced the best growth performance and feed utilization efficiency Putri et al.
Enhanced growth performance during larval Produced the highest growth enhancement Ahmadi et al.
Improved growth
performance and stress
Supported larval growth
and development Improved growth
MyndezMartynez et
, 2018
Bahabadi et
, 2018
Yong et al.
Onura et al.
The high survival rate observed in Treatment A indicates that enrichment of Tubifex worms with vitamin C at 2.
5 g LAA effectively improved larval viability during the rearing period.
This improvement may be attributed to the role of vitamin C as an antioxidant that enhances immune function, maintains physiological balance, and helps larvae cope with environmental stress during early development.
Vitamin C is also involved in tissue formation, collagen synthesis, and the enhancement of non-specific immune responses, thereby reducing mortality during the larval rearing stage (Kumari & Sahoo, 2005.
Wan et al.
, 2.
Vitamin C enhances immune function by stimulating leukocyte activity, increasing phagocytic capacity, promoting antioxidant defense systems, and reducing oxidative stress.
Furthermore, vitamin C contributes to collagen synthesis and tissue repair, thereby improving the integrity of epithelial barriers that serve as the first line of defense against pathogens.
These mechanisms collectively improve disease resistance and survival in fish larvae.
Adequate vitamin C availability enables metabolic processes to proceed more efficiently, allowing nutrients and energy derived from feed to be utilized more effectively for maintaining physiological Consequently, larvae exhibit greater resilience to environmental fluctuations and stress conditions during culture.
These findings are consistent with those reported by Sembiring et al.
, .
who demonstrated that dietary vitamin C supplementation increased the survival rate of African catfish 6% compared with unsupplemented treatments.
Similarly.
Ghughuskar .
reported that vitamin C supplementation improved physiological performance and stress resistance in fish larvae, which are particularly vulnerable to environmental changes.
Although Treatment B exhibited a higher SR than the control, increasing the vitamin C concentration 5 g LAA did not result in better survival compared with Treatment A.
This finding suggests that vitamin C requirements during the larval stage have an optimal threshold, and excessive supplementation may not necessarily provide additional physiological benefits.
Excessive vitamin C levels may reduce nutrient utilization efficiency and potentially disrupt metabolic balance, thereby increasing physiological stress in larvae.
Previous studies have reported that the effectiveness of vitamin C supplementation largely depends on its suitability to the physiological requirements of the cultured organism (Ai et al.
Sunarto et al.
, 2.
2 Effects of Artemia on Larval Survival Rate In addition to promoting growth, the use of Artemia has been widely reported to enhance the survival rate (SR) of fish and shrimp larvae.
High survival performance is generally attributed to the appropriate prey size, high digestibility, active swimming behavior that stimulates feeding activity, and the presence of essential nutrients that support larval health and immune competence.
Recent studies have further demonstrated that Artemia enriched with probiotics, synbiotics, vitamins, and microalgae can improve resistance to environmental stress and pathogenic infections.
A summary of studies evaluating the effects of Artemia on larval survival is presented in Table 2.
Table 2.
Summary of studies reporting the effects of Artemia on survival rate in fish and shrimp larvae Number Experimental Artemia Treatment Effects on Survival Rate References Species Litopenaeus Synbiotic bioImproved survival and Yudiati & encapsulated Artemia enhanced resistance Azhar, 2024 against AHPND Litopenaeus Artemia enriched with Produced the highest Nurbaeti & fructooligosaccharides survival rate and enhanced Putra, 2023 digestive enzyme activities Litopenaeus Different feeding Significantly affected Kahfi et al.
levels of Artemia larval survival Litopenaeus HUFA- and selenium- Increased larval survival Pham et al.
enriched Artemia Litopenaeus Artemia enriched with Improved survival rate and Amrullah et Sargassum extract immune response , 2022 Litopenaeus Artemia nauplii Improved survival and Xie et al.
enriched with pathogen challenge Halorubrum archaea Gadus HUFA- and DHAImproved overall larval Choi et al.
enriched Artemia Penaeus Artemia combined Significantly increased Jaseera et al.
larval survival Aurantiochytrium Litopenaeus Artemia combined Improved survival Herawati et with Phronima sp.
, 2020
Litopenaeus Artemia, liquid Produced the highest Putri et al.
artificial feed, and survival rate among powdered artificial feeding treatments Clarias Artemia combined Produced the highest Zarau et al.
with Skretting dry survival rate and improved larval performance Seriola n-3 HUFA-enriched Artemia Improved larval survival and reduced skeletal Roo et al.
Survival rate (SR) is one of the most important indicators of hatchery success because it directly determines the number of marketable juveniles produced.
During the larval stage, mortality is typically high due to the incomplete development of digestive organs, immature immune systems, and high sensitivity to environmental fluctuations.
Consequently, the provision of high-quality live feed is essential for minimizing mortality.
Based on the synthesis presented in Table 2, the use of Artemia consistently exerts positive effects on larval survival across a wide range of fish and shrimp species (Lavens & Sorgeloos, 1.
In shrimp culture, numerous studies have demonstrated the important role of Artemia in improving larval survival, particularly when enriched with functional nutrients.
Jaseera et al.
, .
reported that co-feeding Artemia with the DHA-rich microalga Aurantiochytrium sp.
significantly improved the survival of black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodo.
This microalga is rich in DHA.
EPA, and natural antioxidants that contribute to enhanced resistance against environmental stress.
These findings indicate that Artemia functions not only as a source of energy but also as an effective carrier of bioactive compounds that support larval viability.
In Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vanname.
, various Artemia enrichment strategies have also resulted in substantial improvements in survival rate.
Xie et al.
, .
reported that Artemia bioencapsulated with the probiotic archaeon Halorubrum enhanced postlarval survival and resistance to pathogenic challenges, likely through modulation of gut microbiota and stimulation of non-specific immune responses.
Similarly.
Yudiati and Azhar .
demonstrated that synbiotic bioencapsulated Artemia improved both survival and resistance against Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND), one of the most destructive diseases affecting intensive shrimp farming.
Apart from probiotic and synbiotic applications, enrichment with essential nutrients has also proven Nur et al.
, .
reported that Pacific white shrimp larvae fed nutrient-supplemented Artemia achieved the highest survival rate of 78.
This finding suggests that improvements in the nutritional quality of live feed directly influence larval viability during critical developmental stages.
Essential nutrients such as amino acids, vitamins, phospholipids, and highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA.
play important roles in cell membrane formation, energy metabolism, and immune system development (Conceiyyo et al.
, 2010.
Nur et al.
, 2.
Several studies have also demonstrated that combining Artemia with additional live feed organisms can further improve survival.
Herawati et al.
, .
reported that the combination of Artemia and Phronima sp.
resulted in higher survival rates compared with the control treatment.
Likewise.
Amrullah et al.
, .
demonstrated that bio-enrichment of Artemia with Sargassum extract significantly improved survival, growth performance, and immune status of Pacific white shrimp postlarvae.
Sargassum contains bioactive polysaccharides, antioxidants, and immunostimulatory compounds that can be transferred to larvae through bioencapsulation.
At the commercial hatchery scale, routine use of Artemia has been shown to maintain consistently high survival rates in penaeid shrimp larval production systems (Lavens & Sorgeloos, 1999.
Sorgeloos et al.
, 2.
These findings highlight that despite the availability of various modern microdiets.
Artemia remains an indispensable component of commercial hatchery operations due to its reliability and consistent performance.
Such stability is associated with its high palatability, suitable particle size, and superior digestibility compared with inert feeds (Dhont et al.
, 2.
Similarly.
Putri et al.
, .
reported that the use of Artemia-based live feed in Pacific white shrimp hatcheries resulted in higher survival rates compared with alternative feeding treatments.
This finding suggests that under tropical hatchery conditions.
Artemia remains an effective tool for reducing early93 stage mortality and improving seed production output.
From a physiological perspective, the positive effects of Artemia on survival can be explained through several mechanisms.
First.
Artemia nauplii possess an appropriate size and active swimming behavior that facilitate prey capture and increase feed intake, thereby reducing the risk of starvation.
Second, their high protein, lipid, and energy contents support basal metabolism and tissue repair processes.
Third, enrichment techniques enable Artemia to function as a vector for functional nutrients such as DHA.
EPA, vitamin C, probiotics, immunostimulants, and antioxidants that strengthen larval defense mechanisms.
Fourth, live feeds generally remain more stable in the water column than finely powdered formulated feeds, which rapidly disintegrate and deteriorate water quality (Lavens & Sorgeloos, 1999.
Conceiyyo et al.
, 2.
Nevertheless, the effectiveness of Artemia in improving larval survival is influenced by several factors, including cyst quality, hatching success, naupliar age at feeding, feeding density, hatchery sanitation, and water quality management.
Poor-quality Artemia or excessive feeding can increase organic loading and stimulate the proliferation of opportunistic bacteria.
Therefore, the successful application of Artemia should be accompanied by appropriate hatchery management practices to maximize its biological benefits.
Overall, the studies summarized in table 2 demonstrate that Artemia makes a substantial contribution to improving survival rates of fish and shrimp larvae, particularly when enriched with nutrients and bioactive compounds.
Modern enrichment strategies have transformed Artemia from a conventional live feed into an efficient delivery system for nutritional and health-promoting agents.
These findings reaffirm the importance of Artemia as a key component of modern hatchery technology and its considerable potential to enhance hatchery productivity in Indonesia.
3 Artemia Enrichment Strategies for Improving Larval Growth and Survival The synthesis of studies on growth performance and survival rate indicates that the effectiveness of Artemia as a live feed is strongly influenced by its nutritional quality.
In modern hatchery practices.
Artemia is no longer administered solely in its conventional form but is increasingly modified through enrichment techniques to enhance its content of essential nutrients and bioactive compounds.
Consequently.
Artemia has evolved into a precision nutrient delivery vehicle capable of transporting functional substances directly to fish and shrimp larvae through bioencapsulation mechanisms (Lavens & Sorgeloos, 1.
In general.
Artemia enrichment strategies can be classified into five major categories: .
lipid enrichment, .
nutrient enrichment, .
probiotic and synbiotic enrichment, .
microalgal enrichment, and .
phytogenic enrichment.
Each category serves specific physiological purposes and exerts distinct biological effects on cultured organisms.
Lipid Enrichment (HUFAs.
DHA.
EPA, and Omega-3 Fatty Acid.
Lipid enrichment is the most widely applied strategy, particularly involving highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA.
such as DHA and EPA.
This approach is necessary because the natural DHA content of Artemia is relatively low, despite the critical importance of these fatty acids for neural development, retinal formation, cell membrane integrity, and larval growth in marine fish and shrimp species (Conceiyyo et al.
, 2.
Studies have shown that the use of enriched Artemia during larval and postlarval stages of Pacific white shrimp promotes superior growth performance compared with lower-quality live feeds or nonenriched Artemia (Martynez-Soler et al.
, 2023.
Nur et al.
, 2.
Furthermore, enrichment with L-lysine and DL-methionine has been reported to improve growth performance and stress resistance (Bahabadi et al.
, 2.
In marine fish culture.
Pham et al.
, .
also demonstrated that HUFA-enriched Artemia significantly improved the growth performance of Asian seabass larvae.
These findings indicate that lipid enrichment represents a primary strategy for enhancing larval growth, particularly in marine species with high HUFA requirements.
Therefore, the use of non-enriched Artemia in marine fish and shrimp hatcheries may compromise seed quality.
Nutrient Enrichment (Vitamins.
Minerals, and Amino Acid.
In addition to lipid supplementation, enrichment with essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and proteins has been shown to improve larval performance.
Nur et al.
, .
reported that nutrient-supplemented Artemia produced the highest survival rate .
40%) in Pacific white shrimp Likewise.
Jusadi et al.
, .
found that enrichment of Artemia with specific lipid sources significantly enhanced the growth of Nile tilapia larvae.
This enrichment strategy generally aims to improve energy metabolism, tissue formation, and feed utilization efficiency.
In tropical hatchery systems, nutrient enrichment is particularly relevant because fluctuating environmental conditions often increase the maintenance energy requirements of larvae.
Probiotic and Synbiotic Enrichment Recent developments have highlighted the use of Artemia as a vehicle for delivering beneficial Xie et al.
, .
reported that Artemia enriched with the archaeon Halorubrum improved survival and pathogen challenge tolerance in Pacific white shrimp postlarvae.
Similarly.
Yudiati et al.
, .
demonstrated that synbiotic bioencapsulated Artemia enhanced survival and resistance against AHPND.
Delivering probiotics and synbiotics through Artemia is considered more effective than direct water application because microorganisms can enter the digestive tract together with the feed.
This strategy is particularly promising for modern shrimp farming systems that are highly susceptible to Vibrio-associated diseases and other bacterial infections.
Given increasing concerns regarding antibiotic resistance, probiotic enrichment is expected to become a key hatchery technology in the future.
Microalgal Enrichment Microalgae represent one of the most promising enrichment materials because they are rich sources of DHA.
EPA, pigments, vitamins, and natural antioxidants.
Jaseera et al.
, .
demonstrated that the combination of Artemia and Aurantiochytrium sp.
significantly improved both growth performance and survival of black tiger shrimp larvae.
The major advantage of microalgal enrichment lies in its natural origin, environmental sustainability, and comprehensive nutritional profile.
Consequently, microalgae are increasingly viewed as a sustainable alternative to commercial fish oil-based enrichment emulsions.
Phytogenic and Seaweed-Based Enrichment Another emerging enrichment strategy involves the use of plant-derived or seaweed-based extracts.
Amrullah et al.
, .
reported that bio-enrichment of Artemia with Sargassum extract improved survival, growth performance, and immune responses of Pacific white shrimp postlarvae.
Seaweeds contain sulfated polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, and antioxidants that function as natural This approach is particularly relevant for Indonesia due to its rich marine The utilization of locally available resources such as Sargassum.
Gracilaria, and other aquatic herbal products could reduce dependence on imported enrichment products while promoting greater self-sufficiency in hatchery operations.
4 Challenges in the Utilization of Artemia in Indonesia Although Artemia has long been recognized as one of the most important live feeds in fish and shrimp hatcheries, its utilization in Indonesia continues to face a number of multidimensional challenges encompassing the availability of raw materials, product quality, technological capacity, economic efficiency, and human resource readiness.
These constraints directly affect hatchery performance, seed quality consistency, and the competitiveness of the national aquaculture sector.
Therefore, a critical evaluation of the limitations associated with Artemia utilization is essential for formulating more adaptive and sustainable development strategies.
High Dependence on Imported Artemia Cysts One of the most fundamental issues is the heavy reliance of Indonesian hatcheries on imported Artemia cysts.
Most of the industry's demand is supplied by major producing countries such as the United States.
China.
Kazakhstan, and Vietnam.
This dependency makes domestic Artemia prices highly susceptible to exchange rate fluctuations, international transportation costs, global logistics disruptions, and changes in international trade dynamics.
Under certain circumstances, increases in cyst prices can substantially raise seed production costs, particularly for small- and medium-scale hatchery enterprises.
Limited Competitiveness of Domestic Production Indonesia possesses considerable ecological potential for Artemia production through salt ponds, hypersaline environments, and arid coastal areas.
However, domestic production remains relatively limited and is still unable to meet national demand.
Major constraints include low cyst productivity, the absence of superior tropical strains, limited harvesting and post-harvest technologies, and insufficient investment in upstream production systems.
As a result, the country remains highly dependent on imported products to support hatchery operations.
Variability in Nutritional Quality and Lack of Product Standardization The nutritional composition of Artemia is influenced by strain origin, geographical source, naupliar age, and handling practices.
Variations in protein, lipid.
DHA.
EPA, and energy contents may result in inconsistent growth and survival responses among larvae.
In practice, many hatcheries do not routinely assess the nutritional quality of Artemia before use, leading to variability in hatchery performance.
For sensitive species such as Asian seabass, groupers.
Pacific white shrimp, and black tiger shrimp, the availability of essential fatty acids is particularly critical for larval development.
The use of non-enriched Artemia may therefore increase the risk of slow growth, developmental abnormalities, and elevated mortality rates.
Uneven Adoption of Enrichment Technologies Although numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of enrichment in improving larval growth and survival, the adoption of these technologies remains limited in many hatcheries.
Small-scale hatchery operators often use Artemia directly without enrichment due to financial constraints, inadequate facilities, or limited technical knowledge.
Consequently, the potential biological benefits of enriched Artemia are not fully realized in many production systems.
Biosecurity Risks and Microbial Contamination As a live feed organism.
Artemia may also act as a carrier of undesirable microorganisms if hatching and handling procedures are not properly managed.
Contamination by opportunistic bacteria such as Vibrio spp.
may occur during cyst hydration, hatching, enrichment, or subsequent distribution to larval rearing tanks.
This risk is particularly important in intensive shrimp hatcheries, where bacterial and viral diseases represent major production constraints.
Therefore, the use of Artemia should be integrated with strict biosecurity protocols, including cyst disinfection, equipment sanitation, water quality management, and routine microbiological monitoring.
Limited Human Resource Capacity and Knowledge Transfer Another challenge relates to gaps in human resource capacity.
While hatchery technicians are generally familiar with the practical use of Artemia, many still have limited understanding of larval nutrition, enrichment protocols, and data-based evaluation of live feed quality.
As a result.
Artemia utilization is often based on traditional practices and empirical experience rather than standardized scientific approaches.
Strengthening technical training and knowledge dissemination programs is therefore essential to improve hatchery performance and support the adoption of advanced feeding Overall to reduce dependence on imported cysts, future research should focus on the domestication and mass production of locally adapted Artemia strains.
Moreover, establishing national quality standards for Artemia cysts and enrichment products may contribute to more consistent hatchery Government support through research funding, technology transfer programs, and publicprivate partnerships could further accelerate the development of a sustainable domestic Artemia industry.
Conclusion The present review confirms that Artemia remains one of the most effective and versatile live feeds used in fish and shrimp hatcheries.
Its favorable nutritional composition, high digestibility, appropriate prey size, and capacity for bioencapsulation make it particularly suitable for supporting early larval Evidence synthesized from recent studies demonstrates that Artemia significantly improves growth performance, survival, stress resistance, and overall larval quality, especially when combined with enrichment strategies involving HUFAs, microalgae, probiotics, synbiotics, and phytogenic compounds.
Despite these advantages, challenges related to imported cyst dependency, quality variability, limited domestic production, and uneven adoption of enrichment technologies remain important constraints in Indonesia.
Future efforts should prioritize domestic Artemia production, advanced enrichment technologies, and biosecure hatchery management to enhance the sustainability and competitiveness of aquaculture production systems.
Authors Note The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.
Authors confirmed that the paper was free of plagiarism.
Reference