CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS
FOR LANGUAGE STUDENTS
Patrisius Istiarto Djiwandono
(patrisius.istiarto@machung.ac.id)
Ma Chung University
Villa Puncak Tidar N-01, Malang 65151, Indonesia

Abstract: Recent developments in language teaching increasingly put a
stronger importance on critical thinking skills. While studies in this area
have begun to emerge, it is believed that a probe into the learners’ mind
when they process information can contribute significantly to the effort of
identifying exactly how our learners think. This study was conducted partly
to seek the answers to the issue. A brief training on critical thinking and critical attitude was given to a group of language learners who were studying
Business Correspondence. Questionnaires were then used to capture traces
of their thinking as they were preparing to accomplish a learning task and
while they were listening to their classmates’ presentation of ideas. The data
show the change of their thinking process. After the training there is a tendency from the students to ask more critical questions with slightly higher
frequencies. It is concluded then that the brief training has prompted their
awareness of critical thinking.
Keywords: critical thinking, critical attitude, awareness, language students

In an era where information is a potential asset which presents itself in abundance, a scholar should not only have the ability to grasp the contents of the information but also exercise critical reasoning to select pieces that are most appropriate and valuable for his or her purpose. Such skill is high on the agenda
of development of foreign language learners in the information era, especially
in Indonesia where conformity to group, teacher-centered instructions, rotelearning and memory-based learning have been thought to constrain Indonesian
students in exercising critical thinking (Richmond, 2007). Pioneering efforts
and studies on this area have begun to emerge. Chandra (2004), for instance,
concluded from a study on three ethnic groups in Indonesia (Javanese,
32

Djiwandono, Critical Thinking Skills for Language Students 33

Minangkabau and Batak Toba) that while the obligation to respect authority
figures may restrain critical thinking in those ethnic groups, the habit of open
discussion and reaching collective consensus seem to promote critical reasoning. Egege and Kutieleh (2004) noted that Asian students are widely regarded
as lacking critical attitude and ignorant of the principles of analysis and critique. In line with this, Soeherman (2004) also found that her Indonesian college respondents’ critical thinking ability was lower than average college students in the USA. Taken as whole, these recent studies point out that the foundation of critical thinking education in Indonesia has yet to become stronger
and more solid. Such endeavor to begin mapping out the current condition of
Indonesian manpower’s ability in critical reasoning should be greeted with positive responses and more empirical studies to establish data-driven principles of
how to develop critical thinking skills in today’s Internet generation.
The paper presents a report of a small-scale exploratory research on the implementation of critical thinking exercise for junior students of English as a foreign language. It describes how critical thinking skill is introduced to the students who are taking Business Correspondence class, presents how critical
thinking proceeds in their mind after they execute some learning tasks, and discusses the results that bear implications for further research and instructional
decisions.
There are two points of rationale behind the introduction of the new skill.
First of all, the skill encourages the students to take on a more independent
learning approach, where they decide on the learning goal, consider all the assumptions, plan the steps toward the goal, and calculate the consequences that
may arise from each step before taking the initiative to proceed on their own.
Second, it is felt that with information flooding from all kinds of sources practically at the click of their fingers, they stand the risk of being overwhelmed,
and worse, select any kind of information that they happen to find, regardless
the quality and credibility. Thus, arguably today’s Net generation should be
armed with the ability to handle information glut from the Internet, and it is for
this purpose why critical thinking needs to be promoted and fostered in the students’ ways of reasoning.
The first section of the paper presents the definition of critical thinking,
presenting its primary features, and several examples of instructional situation
where it can be applied. The second section puts the new approach into the
classroom context. It describes the instructional objective of the Business Correspondence class, and the steps in introducing the critical thinking to the stu-

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dents. Generally speaking, the approach gets the students to determine their
goal or problem, check several things that have been assumed, think of some
acts to reach the goal and/or solve the problems, consider the consequences for
every act, and weigh the advantages and disadvantages for every consequence.
In addition, particular emphases are placed on critical selection of Internet resources and critical reading. This section ends with a brief discussion of their
opinions about the new teaching approach. From the entire study, implications
are drawn concerning potential areas to be explored further, some caveats, and
a few suggestions for other scholars interested in this topic.
THE CONCEPTION OF CRITICAL THINKING
The idea of incorporating critical thinking into educational practices was
initiated by Greek philosophers, reinforced after the World War II, and enhanced by Bloom in the 1950s with his Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
It gained currency particularly in the 1980s. So, as an idea, it has stood the test
of time and yet there is still a perceived need to strengthen the critical thinking
skills in schools and colleges. Quite possibly, the common practices of simply
transferring knowledge from textbooks and teachers to the students still prevail,
as opposed to a growing intention to make students think more independently
and learn for themselves beyond the boundaries of prescribed teaching and
books. The latter concern was voiced in a Tbilisi Declaration over three decades ago, whereby it stated that the ultimate goal of education is to teach them
critical thinking which will enable students to deal with social and environmental issues (Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education, 1978).
DEFINITIONS OF CRITICAL THINKING
Before delving into the issue further, it is best to be clear about what critical thinking really is. Ennis (1987, p. 10) defined it as “reasonable, reflective
thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do”. Years later, there
was even a greater concern to focus on the process of critical thinking. Elder
and Paul (2001), following a convention of several researchers in an effort to
see the components of critical thinking (Facione, 1990), maintain that the following skills make up critical thinking, namely: (1) Interpretation: the ability to
comprehend information; (2) Analysis: the ability to identify the main arguments presented; (3) Evaluation: the ability to judge whether this argument is

Djiwandono, Critical Thinking Skills for Language Students 35

credible and valid based on the logic and evidence given; (4) Inference: the
ability to decide what to believe or do based on solid logic, and to understand
the consequences of this decision; (5) Explanation: the ability to communicate
the process of reasoning to others; and (6) Self-Regulation: the ability to monitor one’s own thinking and correct flaws in logic.
Kurland (2000) adds open-mindedness as another important dimension of
critical thinking. Being open minded requires that a critical thinker adopt the
following characteristics, as to: (1) evaluate all reasonable inferences; (2) consider a variety of possible viewpoints or perspectives; (3) remain open to alternative interpretations; (4) accept a new explanation, model, or paradigm because it explains the evidence better, is simpler, or has fewer inconsistencies or
covers more data; and (5) accept new priorities in response to a reevaluation of
the evidence or reassessment of our real interests.
Hofreiter (2005) maintains that there are four basic principles to follow when
teaching critical thinking skills. First is that critical thinking should be taught
explicitly; second is the need for a model by the instructor; third is the use of
real-world examples to put the teaching in context, and the last is starting with
students’ initial beliefs and opinions before moving on to logic-based reasoning.
METHOD
As stated at the beginning, the main objective of this paper is to report the
effectiveness of an instruction of critical thinking in a content class. Using a
one-group quasi experimental design, a class of juniors (third-year students)
consisting of 8 students at the English Letters Study Program taking Business
Correspondence was taken as the subject of this exploratory study. The critical
thinking instruction was designed primarily to train the students to be independent in their learning. It trained them to engage in the main features of critical thinking when they went about their learning tasks, which in the long run
would enable them to adopt a more or less independent learning. More specifically, it trained them to adopt the following sequential skills: setting objectives,
identifying assumptions, checking the validity of the assumptions, determining
several alternatives to attain the objectives, weighing the consequences for each
alternative, and choosing particular ways to attain the objectives.
Because the students were engaged in an independent learning, in which
they searched and found for themselves the learning materials, they were also

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trained to critically evaluate the sources that they obtained. They were taught to
make sure that the materials they found were trustworthy, complete, and could
be used to achieve the goal they set up at the outset.
In addition to that, they were also trained to adopt a range of open-minded
attitude that is typical of a critical thinker along the points suggested by Kurland (2000): being willing to consider new alternatives and others’ viewpoints,
and being humble enough to revise own perspectives and/or ways when necessary. To promote this attitude, the students were assigned to do a class presentation of some sub-topics of the course, whereby they can attend to each other’s
ideas, exchange arguments, and be open to feedback and correction from their
peers. The outline of the activities in the course is shown in Table 1:
Table 1. Activities in the Course
Session 1

Session 2

Session 3

Activities
Students filled out the questionnaires
Students were taught critical thinking skills, i.e. what acts are to be taken
to study parts of business letter themselves. They were then assigned to
start their independent learning to find a model of business letter and
learn its parts themselves.
Students presented parts of business letters, giving feedback to each other.
Students were taught how to adopt critical attitude toward their
classmates’ presentation.
Students were assigned the next topic, i.e. writing an enquiry, which they
had to study independently by searching from the Internet and library.
Students were given questionnaires asking them how they would set
about accomplishing the task.
Students presented letters of enquiry, giving feedback to and commenting
on each other.
Students filled out questionnaires asking them what their attitude was
toward others’ presentation of ideas.

The respondents were eight (8) fifth-semester students from English Letters Study Program of Ma Chung University who were taking a Business Correspondence class. The data were collected at the beginning of the course
through questionnaires. There were three questions asked to the respondents:
the steps that they took when they were about to learn a certain topic in Business Correspondence, the questions they asked when learning a model letter
that they obtained themselves, and questions they asked by heart when listening to a classmate’s presentation about a business letter.

Djiwandono, Critical Thinking Skills for Language Students 37

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Tables 2 and 3 sum up the frequencies of the respondents' responses to the
questions.
Table 2. The Acts Taken When Wanting to Learn about a Certain Topic
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Steps
Determining definition and goal
Understanding contents
Looking at a model letter
Writing a letter on her own
Identifying the theme/topic
Browsing Internet to obtain materials or seek answers
Listening to a lecture

Frequency
1
2
4
1
2
3
1

As shown in Table 2, act number 1, which is a major characteristic of critical thinking, was done by only one of the eight respondents. Most of them
jumped to the model letter right away, or browsed the Internet to obtain materials. While these acts are arguably manifestation of critical thinking, it could
have been preceded by a conscious setting of the goal.
Table 3. Questions Asked when Reading a Model Letter
No

Questions

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

When is this expression used?
For whom is the expression?
What is the meaning of the expression?
What must be included in a business letter?
What is the most frequently used model?
Which type of letter is most effective?
What expression is most appropriate?
Is this model letter appropriate/accurate?
What is the structure of a business letter?
Where did the writer get the appropriate
business expressions?
What is the writer’s purpose?
How to write a proper letter that attracts the
attention of the readers?
Is this model valid?
Is the expression applicable to all types of
business letters?

11
12
13.
14.

1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1

Type of critical
thinking acts
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Evaluation
Analysis
Evaluation
Analysis
Evaluation

1
1

Analysis
Inference

2
1

Evaluation
Evaluation

Frequency

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Even before the instruction on critical thinking was started, the students
showed a considerable awareness of critical reasoning. Indeed, as Wolcott et al.
(2002, p. 87) maintained, “…the whole college experience has a significant effect on critical thinking.” Thus, by virtue of being members of the academics,
the students’ ways of thinking have been shaped so as to be critical in their approaches to learning. As Table 3 above shows, quite a number of acts can be
identified as reflections of critical thinking. Thus, questions number 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 7, 9, and 11 are apparently analytical acts applied to critiquing a model letter.
Questions number 6, 8, 10, 13 and 14 are reflections of their evaluating attitude, and number 12 is an inferential act that clearly marks the critical attitude
of the student.
Table 4 presents their mental questioning when critiquing a classmate’s
presentation:
Table 4. Questions Asked When Listening to Classmate’s Presentation
No

Questions

1
2
3

Is this letter applicable widely?
What are the examples?
What is the difference between model A
and B?
Why using this model letter?
What is the purpose of this letter?
Where is this taken from?
How are the ideas organized?
Is that kind of letter likely to be considered
acceptable by the addressee?
What method is used by the business to
make it run well?
What plan has been made to build the
business?

4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Frequency
1
1
1

Type of critical
thinking acts
Evaluation
Analysis
Analysis

1
1
2
1
1

Evaluation
Analysis
Evaluation
Analysis
Evaluation

1

Not a critical
thinking act
Not a critical
thinking act

1

In Table 4, the acts are predominantly characteristics of critical thinking
that were outlined by Facione (1990) above. As shown in the table, the students
claimed to have performed several acts that reflect their critical attitude. Acts
number 1, 4, 6 and 8 are evidence of evaluating attitude toward their classmate’s presentation, while acts number 2, 3, 5, 7 are evidence of analytical attitude.

Djiwandono, Critical Thinking Skills for Language Students 39

However, it is clear from here that the students have yet to exercise openmindedness. It should be understandable at this stage why they did not perform
such acts because they had never received any instruction or training on openmindedness.
Progress
The report on the students’ ways of thinking after a brief teaching of critical thinking (henceforth “CT”) is presented in Table 5 as a comparison between
their acts prior to the CT teaching and those after the teaching. This way, a picture of progress in their ways of thinking can emerge.
Table 5. Changes of Acts When Wanting to Learn about Enquiry Letter
Respondent: AH
No
Before the CT Teaching
1
Reading materials
2

Using Internet to find answers

3
4

---

Respondent: TA
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Looking at a model
2
3
4

Browsing Internet
---

Respondent: SH
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Identifying the definition of Business Correspondence
2
Identifying the objective of Business Correspondence
3

Understanding the contents of the chapter

After the CT Teaching
Finding the definition of
“enquiry letter”
Seeking the goal of such
letter.
Finding parts of the letter.
Trying to write an enquiry
letter.
After CT Teaching
Finding definition of
“enquiry letter”
Finding parts of such letter.
Finding how it is written.
Searching from various
sources.
After CT Teaching
Knowing the model of
Enquiry Letter
Knowing the relationship
between Enquiry Letter and
Business Correspondence
Knowing the aim of Enquiry
Letter

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Respondent: PP
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Identifying the theme
2
Listening to the lecture
3
4

Browsing Internet
--

Respondent: KI
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Searching for the model in various sources
2

Comparing and contrasting the models from the
sources
3
-Respondent: ME
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Identifying theme

After CT Teaching
Browsing Internet
Find many good samples of
Enquiry Letter
Comparing one to the others
Asking friends what they
have found
After CT Teaching
Finding parts of Enquiry
Letter
Finding from 2-3 sources
how such letter is written
Learning the format
After CT Teaching
Knowing the definition of
“enquiry letter”
Searching for steps to write
an enquiry letter.

A general trend among these students is the increased number of acts that
they executed after they received a short training on Critical Thinking. As the
Table above shows, on average there are additional one or two more steps after
the CT teaching. This could be an indication of their awareness of planning
more acts to attain the goal in hand.
None of the respondents explicitly reported the acts on which they had received training shortly before they filled out the questionnaires (setting objectives, identifying assumptions, checking the validity of the assumptions, determining several alternatives to attain the objectives, weighing the consequences
for each alternative, and choosing particular ways to attain the objectives). Two
alternative causes can be offered for this finding. First, the training was simply
too brief to raise their awareness of such critical thinking acts. Second, they
might have done those acts in their mind but did not report them in the questionnaires. Arguably, if the second point holds true, the respondents still performed those critical thinking acts which did not surface in their report but
which might have been implicated in the acts that they reported explicitly.

Djiwandono, Critical Thinking Skills for Language Students 41

Thus, for example, the act of finding definition of “enquiry letter” may have
implicated the act of setting the goal, or the act of finding from 2 – 3 sources
may have involved checking assumptions, as refelected in Table 6.
Table 6. Changes of Acts When Studying A Model Letter Independently
Respondent: AH
No
Before the CT Teaching
1
What are the most frequently used type?
2
Which is the most effective business letter?
3
What are the most effective expressions?
Respondent: TA
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Dealing with unfamiliar terms
2

Learning the outline

Respondent: SH
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Where did the writer get the right
expressions?
2
What is his purpose/goal?
3
How to make a proper business letter?
Respondent: PP
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Is this model still valid?
2
3

What model is most frequently used?

Respondent: KI
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Is this model accurate?
2
Respondent: ME
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Is this model understandable by readers?

After the CT Teaching
How are these expression used?
What expressions must be used?
After CT Teaching
Detailed explanation about how
it is written
Why some things must be stated
in a business letter
After CT Teaching
What is the source from which
this is taken?
Have you learned something
about enquiry letter?
What is enquiry letter?
After CT Teaching
What is the most common
expression in an enquiry letter?
Is it still valid?
Is it possible to have American
and British expressions for an
enquiry letter?
After CT Teaching
Is the source of this model
accurate and trustworthy?
Which one from many models
is the most appropriate?
After CT Teaching
Are the expressions that I am

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reading appropriate and proper?
What important parts have not
been stated in the model that I
am reading?

A few respondents tended to ask more questions after they received the
CT training. The questions they asked after the CT briefing tended to be more
probing. Respondent TA, for instance, addressed the need to know more detail,
asking the reason why some expressions are used. Respondent PP was even
concerned about the validity of the model; KI and ME were wondering whether
the model was accurate and trustworthy. Taken together, the respondents asked
more or less the same number of questions but with a higher sense of being
critical in their questions after the CT training.
Table 7. Changes of Acts When Listening to Other’s Presentation of Ideas
Respondent: PP
No
Before the CT Teaching
1
What’s the difference between model A
and B?
2
What are the examples?
3

--

Respondent: TA
No
Before CT Teaching
1
What is the source of the model?
Respondent: SH
No
Before CT Teaching
1
Where did you get the model from?
2
Respondent: KI
No
Before CT Teaching
1
What source did he get it from?

After the CT Teaching
Is the model being presented
still valid?
What is the source of the
model?
What makes the first example
differ from the other examples?
Why is it possible to have many
formats of an inquiry letter?
After CT Teaching
What is the source of the
model?
After CT Teaching
Is there any difference between
a business letter and an enquiry
letter?
What is the aim of enquiry letter
besides asking for information?
After CT Teaching
Does the company really pay
attention to the form of my

Djiwandono, Critical Thinking Skills for Language Students 43

2

Is that type of letter acceptable by the
addressee?

Respondent: ME
No
Before CT Teaching
1
What method is to be used to make the
business run well?
2
How’s the planning?

business letter?
Is the business letter really
useful for me when I graduate
from the university?
How many types of letters
exist?
Which one should I use in the
real-world?
After CT Teaching
Why does an enquiry letter have
to use brief sentences?
Do we have to give details
about our achievements and
experiences in our previous job?
How to make a letter more
appealing to the readers?

Again, a trend similar to the previous one was observed during the respondents’ listening to others’ presentation of ideas. In general, they asked
more questions than they did prior to the brief CT training. The quality of the
questions also improves. PP, for instance, asked about the validity of the model
her classmate was presenting. Her questions about the difference between examples, and about why many formats are possible clearly reflect an analytical
reasoning. Likewise, respondent SH also demonstrated similar questions. Respondent KI went so far as to question the practical value of studying a business letter in the real world. All in all, the brief training on CT may have
prompted some of the respondents to take on a more critical stance toward their
classmates’ presentation.
In short, all the findings seem to suggest that the brief training on CT is
rendered less impactful on the students’ ways of reasoning critically. Yet, a
closer observation reveals that this may not be the case; the brief training may
have promoted their awareness of their own thinking, which in turn contributes
to improved quality of their questioning and attitude toward tasks, materials
that they read, and their classmates’ ideas.
Learners arguably think more or less critically as they are actively engaged in learning activities. The interaction with their peers and lecturers, their
exposure to the scientific ideas and discussion, their execution of academic

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tasks may have facilitated their critical thinking ability. More importantly, these critical thinking skills may have manifested without them being aware or at
least being able to articulate them clearly. Cosgrove (2009, p. 23) points out
this environment-induced critical reasoning below:
Even students who have never thought deeply (or, indeed, even superficially)
about the term “critical thinking” may nevertheless have hosts of strategies they
use to study and learn effectively (such as so-called “coping mechanisms” used
by disadvantaged or disabled students). Similarly, even professors who have not
examined explicit theories of critical thinking or made systematic attempts to
integrate it into their tutorials may be implicitly, perhaps even systematically,
fostering key skills (such as the questioning of assumptions).

In other words, even without explicit teaching on critical thinking, it is
quite possible that learners have been performing critical thinking skills in their
mind, applying them to their assignments or when attending classes. Thus, the
critical thinking skills the learners perform from time to time may have existed
implicitly. The explicit instruction on CT will serve only to raise their awareness about the critical thinking.
The most recent opinion in this area was by Errihani (2012) who contends
that among language students critical thinking may not be pronounced very
strongly because their main aim is to gain fluency and accuracy in language
use. It seems that when the learning goal is the enhancement of language proficiency, critical thinking does not take on paramount importance.
On the contrary, another research finding seems to encourage an opposite
view. Arum and Roksa’s study (2011) on the critical thinking skills of 2000
college students in USA reveals that 45 percent of them do not progress in the
quality of their critical thinking, reasoning or writing skills during the initial
two years of study. About the same percentage of them do not improve after
four years of study. If this holds true everywhere else, steps must be taken to
ensure that college graduates undergo special training on critical thinking, either as a separate course or integrated in the curriculum.
At this point it is very tempting to conclude that explicit instruction on CT
offers little benefit to the educational activities in college. Yet, as the findings
above suggest, an explicit critical thinking instruction has arguably evoked
more critical questions and more critical standpoint on the part of the learners.
If conducted with greater intensity and frequency, CT training that is integral

Djiwandono, Critical Thinking Skills for Language Students 45

with the courses may generate even more impressive outcome. Learners
equipped with solid skills of thinking critically may even be more prepared to
take on independent learning.
The small-scale classroom research can serve as a basis for research of a
larger scale involving more learners and using a more rigorous approach in the
research method. Following Hofreiter (2005), investigation into the role of critical thinking will have to be conducted in a considerably long period during
which teachers can model many different facets of critical attitude and logical
reasoning to solve some problems or accomplish given tasks. Also, since the
critical thinking covers broad areas of cognitive activities, attempt should be
made to limit the types of critical thinking that are specifically orientated to
specific learning tasks.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
The paper sets out to explore the critical thinking that supposedly was performed by a group of learners who were studying Business Correspondence after they were given brief training on critical thinking and open-mindedness.
The data gathered from questionnaires indicate that they asked more critical
questions with better qualities than they did before the training. The critical
questions asked, however, were not necessarily related to the essential points of
the training. Therefore, at best it can be concluded that the training has succeeded only in raising the learners’ awareness of thinking critically. However,
it is believed that with much more intensive and prolonged period of training
that comes with trainer’s modeling of the critical thinking, other research in the
same area would yield a more convincing and encouraging result.
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Y. H. Poortinga (Eds.), Ongoing themes in psychology and culture (Online
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