JURNAL KAJIAN BALI
Hlm. 01­—

Journal of Bali Studies

...

p-ISSN 2088-4443 # e-ISSN 2580-0698 Volume 15, Number 01, April 2025

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market
for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint
Anom Hery Suasapha1* , I Wayan Suardana2 , Putu Sucita Yanthy3
I Nyoman Sunarta4 , Anderson Ngelambong5
1,2,3,4
Universitas Udayana, Indonesia
1
Bali Tourism Polytechnic, Indonesia
5
Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
DOI: https://doi.org/10.24843/JKB.2025.v15.i01.p05

,

Abstract: This article investigates the carbon footprints of tourists from various
countries to inform Bali’s sustainable tourism strategy, especially its environmental
sustainability. Analysing data from the top 20 tourist-generating countries, the
research employs a carbon footprint calculator to assess emissions associated with
their flights. The findings categorise these countries into three groups based on their
carbon emissions: low, medium, and high-carbon footprint markets. Countries with
lower carbon footprints, particularly Southeast Asian ones, should be prioritised
as target markets to promote sustainable tourism in Bali. Conversely, tourists from
medium and high-carbon-footprint countries should be considered the less-preferred
tourist market, and their number should be reduced through demarketing strategies.
The article concludes with managerial implications and highlights research limitations,
emphasising the need for ongoing efforts in sustainable tourism management.
Keywords: Bali; tourism carbon footprint; sustainable tourist market; sustainable
tourism; demarketing

1. Introduction
ustainable tourism maintains that tourism should benefit the local
economy, conserving the environment and the social and cultural of the
local community (Butler, 2018), while keeping the visitors satisfied (UNEP
& UNWTO, 2005) with the experience they have enjoyed. The definition of
sustainable tourism implies a limit that has to be carefully taken care of in order
for tourism to be sustainable. One such limit is the carrying capacity which
considers the ability of a destination area and its local community, along with
their social and cultural life, to cope with the negative impacts of tourism as

S

*

Corresponding author’s email: anom_hs@ppb.ac.id
Submitted: 24 October 2024; Accepted: 12 February 2025; Published: April 2025
Copyright © 2025 by the author (s). This article is published by Jurnal Kajian Bali (Journal of Bali Studies),
University of Udayana, Bali, Indonesia, under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

http://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/kajianbali

119

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

essential when planning, monitoring, and evaluating tourism development.
Implementing carrying capacity in tourism development will require a tourism
authority to determine the appropriate number of tourists that can be accepted
to visit a tourism destination (Butler, 2019), because too many tourists will lead
to unsustainable tourism development.
However, many countries and global tourism organisations still believe
that the measure of tourism success is solely based on the growth in tourist
arrivals (Gössling et al., 2021; Gössling & Higham, 2021). This assumption is
exacerbated by the fact that many tourist destination countries still focus their
efforts on long-haul markets (Gössling et al., 2015), which require extensive
support from the aviation industry to allow the passenger to arrive at a destination
in a short amount of time (Eiseman, 2018). Both factors are counterproductive
to achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, given that a significant portion
of international tourist travel is accomplished by air travel (UNWTO, 2020).
Although carbon emissions from tourism have not been well-documented
(Lenzen et al., 2018), it is known that the aviation industry contributes 3% of
the total global carbon emissions (Klöwer et al., 2020). Meanwhile, most (54%)
of global tourism travel is air travel (UNWTO, 2023). Consequently, if the
recent COVID-19 pandemic does not bring about significant changes in how
tourism is conducted, it is feared that there may be a sharp increase in demand
for aviation services, possibly reaching 300% by 2050, if not tightly regulated
(Higham & Font, 2020). If this were to occur, there is concern that the goal of
achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 may not be attainable, and tourism
will become one of the sectors significantly responsible for the environmental
impacts, such as climate change, due to the high concentration of carbon in the
Earth’s atmosphere.
To avoid this scenario, experts have proposed methods through their
writings in various journals. Since tourism is the result of the combination of
motivational push and destination pull factors (Dann, 1981), the methods can
specifically target the motivational push of the visitor and the destination pull.
The flight shame campaign is one of the famous examples of a motivational
targeted method to decrease greenhouse gas emissions from flying (Happonen
et al., 2023). Flight shame or flygskam (Becken et al., 2021) suggests that flying
may worsen climate change. Thus, one should feel guilty or ashamed to fly and
encourage others to do the same (Gössling et al., 2019; Mkono, 2020). The other
method that targets the motivational push to travel is in the form of policy, for
example, the policy that requires traveller to declare their climate declaration
for a long-distance trip (Happonen et al., 2023).
Focusing on short-haul markets and implementing demarketing strategies
for long-haul markets (Gössling et al., 2015; Gössling & Higham, 2021) are
120

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

examples of methods targeted at the destination pull (Happonen et al., 2023).
Focusing on short-haul markets means that tourist destinations are expected to
target nearby countries as their primary tourism markets while making efforts to
“de-market” long-haul markets. By choosing short-haul markets, a destination
can reduce the carbon emissions generated by its visitors. Conversely,
destinations that target long-haul markets will bear significant responsibility
for the carbon emissions from each flight their visitors take (Picture 1).

Picture 1. One of Indonesia’s national airlines’ aircraft transported tourists to
various tourism destinations in and outside Bali (Source: Darma Putra, 2013)
Demarketing is an effort to control a specific market segment that a
tourism destination wishes to attract (Clements, 1989). Demarketing can be
done to limit the demand for a tourism destination, restrict or even change the
target market for a tourism destination, or convey scarcity in the supply of a
tourism destination’s offerings, ultimately altering the demand for that tourism
destination (Eiseman, 2018). Kotler and Levy define demarketing as a marketing
activity that reduces demand for a product, either temporarily or permanently
(Eiseman, 2018). Demarketing is an aspect of marketing (Kotler & Levy, 1971)
and is not the opposite of marketing (Beeton & Benfield, 2002). In the field of
tourism, demarketing is defined as a technique (Pomering et al., 2011) or policy
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

121

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

tool (Beeton & Benfield, 2002) to control the demand for tourism products
in a tourism destination by reversing the effects of marketing activities, and
reducing the attraction for a specific market segment (Happonen et al., 2023).
Demarketing as a strategy for achieving sustainable tourism has
advantages and disadvantages (Eiseman, 2018). Its advantages include
supporting environmental conservation efforts and offering flexibility to adapt
to the specific situation faced by a tourism destination. On the other hand,
demarketing is seen as a discriminatory strategy, especially when it involves
price increases, which can reduce the ability of low-income visitors/tourists to
enjoy a particular product. Another drawback is that this strategy can lead a
tourism destination to bankruptcy if the number of visitors/tourists fails to meet
expectations (Eiseman, 2018). Therefore, for demarketing to be successfully
implemented, a tourist destination must first determine its target market
(Clements, 1989). Targeting a specific market is vital since the sustainability of
a tourist destination is often determined by its target market (Ritchie & Crouch,
2003). Thus, selecting a suitable market segment is the fundamental step that
needs to be done by a Destination Management Organization (DMO) (Ritchie
& Crouch, 2003), and selecting the sustainable tourist market is a market-driven
strategy that can be implemented by a tourism authority (Dolnicar, 2004) so
that the economically, environmentally and culturally benefitting sustainable
tourism can be achieved (Hertwig & Lusby, 2021).
This article discusses the approach that can be used to select the sustainable
tourist market based on their carbon footprint calculation for the destination to
participate in the net-zero carbon campaign. Using Bali as the case study, this
article will discuss the tourist-generating countries that are best targeted and
those that should be avoided by an island destination that is primarily attractive
but prone to climate change (Lee et al., 2018). In doing so, this article will also
contribute as the first attempt to segment the tourist market based on its carbon
footprint, thus contributing to the literature on sustainable tourism in Indonesia
that lacks specific and detailed content (Kawuryan et al., 2022), such as carbon
footprint.
2. Literature Review
Discussion on the sustainability of tourism in Bali gained significant
traction (Demolingo et al., 2024) especially from 2010 to 2019, with topics such
as agriculture, host-guest relationships, tourist villages, and marine tourism
dominating publications (Wiweka & Pickel-Chevalier, 2022). Marketing
for sustainable accommodation operations is also an interesting topic, with
contributions from authors such as those who developed a “marketing mix
7P +” that combines the 7P of marketing mix with the elements of the Triple
122

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

Bottom Line of sustainability (Yoga et al., 2020). The carbon footprint in
relation to sustainable tourism in Bali has also attracted significant interest
from researchers in this field. Analysis of 200 published research articles on
sustainable tourism and carbon footprints in Bali using VOSviewer indicates
that discussions primarily focus on ground transportation, carbon intensity, and
electricity. While some studies explore carbon emissions related to sustainable
tourism destinations and the hospitality industry, none specifically address
carbon footprints from the perspective of tourist segmentation, highlighting an
important gap in the literature.

Picture 2. Visualisation of literature review on Sustainable Tourism and Carbon
Footprint of Bali (Source: Authors’ analysis using VOSViewer, 2024)
To date, some researchers have attempted to segment the sustainable
tourist market. Their segmentations were developed under various terminology
such as community-based tourists (Lee & Jan, 2019), geopark visitors (Fung
& Jim, 2015), geo-travellers (Boley & Nickerson, 2013), ecotourists (CarvacheFranco et al., 2019; Carvache-Franco et al., 2019b, 2019a; Palacio & McCool,
1997), sustainable transport passengers (Dallen, 2007), sustainable tourist (Jani,
2018), unsustainable tourists (Juvan et al., 2016), rural tourists (Kastenholz,
2004; Kastenholz et al., 2015), sustainable market segment (Dolnicar, 2004),
national park visitors (Veisten et al., 2015), and mountain protected area visitors
(Taczanowska et al., 2019).
The indicators used to segment the sustainable tourist market are
the perceived concept of sustainability (Sánchez-Fernández et al., 2019),
environmentally responsible behaviours (Lee & Jan, 2019), motivations
(Carvache-Franco et al., 2019; Carvache-Franco et al., 2019b, 2019a; Fung &
Jim, 2015; Jani, 2018), geo-travellers tendency scale (Boley & Nickerson, 2013),
attitude toward sustainability (Dallen, 2007), sustainable values, motivation
and demographics (Jani, 2018), tourists’ pro-environmental disbeliefs and
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

123

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

unsustainable behaviour (Juvan et al., 2016), destination attractiveness and fit
(Kastenholz, 2004), a priori segmentation (Dolnicar, 2004), tourist’s interaction
pattern in a rural tourism destination (Kastenholz et al., 2015), perception
towards park’s facilities (Veisten et al., 2015), social demographics, trip
characteristics and activities (Palacio & McCool, 1997), and self-organizing
maps (Taczanowska et al., 2019). Interestingly, none of the above segmentations
have been made based on tourist carbon footprint calculations.
Carbon footprint is the measure of the CO₂ and the methane emitted from
a specific population or activity, which reflects the behaviour of the country,
organization, enterprise, and individual in terms of their compliance with
the principles of environmental justice (Huang & Tang, 2021). In the tourism
industry, the carbon footprint is estimated from the CO₂ emitted directly
during a tourism activity, such as fuel of the land, sea, or air transport, as well
as those emitted indirectly during a tourism activity that is embodied in the
food, accommodation or souvenir bought by the tourist (Lenzen et al., 2018).
There are two types of carbon footprints (Huang & Tang, 2021; Whittlesea &
Owen, 2012). The first are those resulting from the direct use of fossil fuels, and
the second are those hiddenly emitted during the preparation and production
of various commodities (Huang & Tang, 2021; Whittlesea & Owen, 2012). As
the industry that is considered the major contributor to climate change due to
its carbon footprint (Kitamura et al., 2020), the emission of greenhouse gases
from the tourism industry should be managed and minimized to reduce its
negative impact on the environment (Sunarta & Saifulloh, 2022; Whittlesea
& Owen, 2012). Using the carbon footprint to select the desired sustainable
tourism market and demotivate the less-desired unsustainable tourist market
for environmental sustainability represents one approach to minimising the
negative impact of tourism’s carbon footprint.
3. Method and Theory
3.1 Method
The tourist-generating countries discussed in this article are the top 20
countries whose residents visited Bali in 2022, according to the data of the Bali
Government Tourism Office, available online at https://www.disparda.baliprov.
go.id. The carbon footprint for each tourist-generating country is calculated
using the Carbon Footprint Calculator of The Ministry of Tourism and Creative
Economy of the Republic of Indonesia, available online at https://jejak.travel,
as seen in Picture 3. The carbon footprint calculator is the system intended to
calculate the carbon emission of travellers’ flights so they can compensate for
the negative effect of their actions on the environment through carbon offset,
thus contributing to sustainable tourism in Indonesia.
124

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

Picture 3. Screenshot of Carbon Footprint Calculator of The Ministry of Tourism
and Creative Economy of the Republic of Indonesia (Source: https://jejak.travel)
The Carbon Footprint Calculator of The Ministry of Tourism and
Creative Economy of the Republic of Indonesia calculates the carbon footprint
of each visitor using four parameters: 1). distance, 2). fuel consumption, 3).
omission factor, and 4). length of stay in a hotel. To use the calculator, a visitor
must input information, such as departure airport, arrival airport, cabin class,
number of passengers, and travel purpose. The visitor only needs to select an
option concerning their flight information from the available options. Once all
the required information has been input, the calculator will show the carbon
footprint of their flight. Visitors can proceed by clicking the “take action” button
to learn the available carbon offset options. There are five choices of carbon offset
that visitors can choose from such as 1). Mangrove ecotourism rehabilitation at
Berau, 2). Mangrove tree planting, 3). Tiga Warna CMC Mangrove ecotourism
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

125

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

project, 4). Mangrove tree planting at Klawalu, and 5). The endemic tree planting
program. Clicking a choice button will show the amount of carbon offset the
visitor must pay in Indonesian Rupiah or USD and the number of trees planted.
For this article, the calculation was done for one (1) passenger of an
economy-class flight who stayed in a 4-star Hotel for 3 days. The 3 days of stay
is based on the 2022 data available online on 2023 at https://disparda.baliprov.
go.id/buku-statistik-pariwisata-bali-tahun-2022/2023/03/, which shows that
tourists are staying in Bali for 2.54 days per visit, which is 3 days. The length of
stay in Bali is chosen as the parameter of calculation instead of the length of stay
in a hotel because there is a possibility that a visitor/tourist stays in more than
one hotel in Bali. On the Carbon Footprint Calculator, there are three lengths of
stay choices: two days at a 5-star hotel, three days at a 4-star hotel, and seven
days at a 3-star hotel. Since not all tourists stay in a 5-star hotel in Bali, the
author chose three days as a parameter for the calculation, as it is based on the
length of stay data of tourists in Bali.
Suppose we want to calculate the carbon footprint of a resident of
Singapore who travelled to Bali. We can choose Changi as the departure airport
on the carbon footprint calculator and Bandara Udara International Ngurah Rai
Bali as the arrival airport. As soon as the name of the arrival airport is chosen,
the calculator will ask to provide the “passenger info”, where we can select the
cabin class of the passenger from the three choices available and the number
of passengers from the four choices available. Suppose we select economy as
the cabin class and one person as the number of passengers, then click the
“save” button. After saving the information, the calculator still requires us to
fill in other information concerning travel purposes. There are three choices of
purpose available in the calculator: 7 days at 3 stars hotel, 3 days at 4 stars
hotel, and 2 days at 5 stars hotel. After completing the travel purpose, we click
the “take action” button to take us to the calculation result. The calculator will
show a number indicating the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the flight of
a Singapore resident to Bali (in Kg), as shown in Picture 4.
After the calculation process had been obtained, the author determined
the rank of carbon footprint for each country of origin based on the amount of
CO₂ emitted to the atmosphere. The rank is arranged in reverse order, where
the country with the most significant carbon emission is ranked number one,
while the country with the smallest carbon footprint is ranked number 20.

126

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

Picture 4. Result of carbon footprint calculation using The Carbon Footprint
Calculator of The Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy of the Republic of
Indonesia (Source: https://jejak.travel)
3.2 Theory
Given the difficulties in achieving a net-zero carbon, it is argued that
progress toward the agenda can be achieved through a transition (Gössling &
Higham, 2021). A framework that will allow a DMO to progress toward the net
carbon footprint agenda has been proposed for the transition. The framework
consisted of three strategies: 1). Reducing carbon, 2). Reducing leakages, and
3). Adding values. Reducing carbon, in particular, can be achieved through
marketing the short-haul market and equally demarketing the long-haul
market. These strategies are considered the immediate strategy that can be used
to lower a tourist destination’s carbon footprint (Gössling & Higham, 2021).
Segmenting the market, therefore, is an essential step that needs to be carried
out in preparation for implementing the reduction of carbon strategy.
Market segmentation is an endeavour to classify the tourist market with
distinctive needs (Suardana et al., 2020) or similar characteristics for marketing
purposes (Horner & Swarbrooke, 2007). Segmentation can be determined based
on some criteria. There are classic segmentation criteria and tourism-specific
methods of segmentation. Segmentation based on geographical elements,
socioeconomic variables, demographic factors, psychographic and behaviour
characteristics, as shown in Picture 5 are classic segmentation examples.
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

127

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

Picture 5. Behaviouristic Segmentation (Source: Horner & Swarbrooke, 2007)
Tourism-specific segmentation is based on criteria such as the purpose
of travel, the visitors’ needs, the motivation and benefits sought, the visitors’
characteristics, demographic, economic, and geographic characteristics, and the
visitors’ psychographic characteristics and price. Tourism-specific segmentation
can also be made based on the method of travel to reach a destination and the
length of the journey (Middleton & Clarke, 2001; Swarbrooke, 1999; Shaw, 1999,
as cited in Horner & Swarbrooke, 2007).

128

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

Once the market segment has been determined, the next step is to select
the target market. Identifying the target market is essential for a Destination
Management Organization (DMO) to make its destination competitive and
sustainable (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003), as shown in Picture 6. Once the target
market has been selected, the DMO may proceed with the next element of
destination marketing.

Picture 6. Elements of sustainable tourism destination marketing (Source:
Ritchie & Crouch, 2003)
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Results
Using the Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy of the Republic of
Indonesia’s carbon footprint calculator, the carbon footprint of Bali’s top twenty
tourist-generating countries was calculated. The results are presented in Table 1.

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

129

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

Table 1. Result of Carbon Footprint Calculation of the Top-20 Tourist Generating
Countries of Bali
Number of tourists Carbon footprint Carbon footprint
in year 2022
(Kg)
rank

No

Nationality

1

Australia

605,955

666.8

18

2

India

181,888

1,100

13

3

Singapore

129,088

529.4

20

4

UK

126,893

2,200

4

5

USA

108,132

3,100

1

6

France

95,510

2,200

3

7

Germany

94,516

2,000

7

8

Malaysia

91,058

573.1

19

9

South Korea

63,037

1,000

14

10

Russia

58,031

1,800

9

11

Netherlands

55,730

2,100

6

12

Vietnam

39,289

789.7

16

13

New
Zealand

38,674

1,300

10

14

China

33,087

1,100

11

15

Philippines

30,559

678

17

16

Italy

27,729

2,100

5

17

Canada

24,329

2,800

2

18

Japan

20,021

1,100

12

19

Taiwan

8,400

835.5

15

20

Ukraina

7,466

1,800

8

Source: Result of the Author’s analysis (2023)
As visualised in Picture 7, Bali draws visitors from diverse countries
spanning several continents. The spectrum of nations contributing to Bali’s
tourist influx encompasses those in the immediate proximity of the ASEAN
region, including Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, and the Philippines.
Bali also garners substantial visits from countries located in the fareastern expanses of Asia, notably South Korea, China, Japan, and Taiwan.
Further southward, the island attracts South Asian tourists, with India,
considered the fastest-growing tourism market in the world (Putra et al., 2020),
being a noteworthy contributor. It also casts its allure upon nations within the
130

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

southern hemisphere, specifically Australia and New Zealand, which fall under
the Oceania region. Simultaneously, Bali maintains an international appeal,
as European nations such as Italy, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia,
Ukraine, and the United Kingdom significantly contribute to its tourism industry.
Stretching across the Atlantic, the United States and Canada constitute integral
tourist-generating countries for Bali, representing the American continent.

Picture 7. Visualisation of Bali’s tourism market countries’ location and carbon
footprint when visiting Bali (Source: the Author, 2025)
The calculations revealed that flights from two of the top three touristgenerating countries of Bali, Australia and Singapore will produce the lowest
CO2 emissions. Australians, the number one tourist market for Bali, generate
666.8 kilograms of CO2 emissions per flight to Bali. Meanwhile, Singapore, the
closest of the three, produces 529.4 kilograms of carbon emissions per flight to
Bali. India ranked number 2 in Bali’s most important tourist market, emitted
1.1 tons of CO2, and ranked number 13 in the carbon footprint ranking. Other
ASEAN countries in Bali’s top 20 tourist-generating countries are Malaysia, the
Philippines, and Vietnam, ranked 19th, 17th, and 16th, respectively.
Regrettably, two of the top five countries generating tourists for Bali, the
UK and the USA, also rank among the top five countries with the highest carbon
emissions. The UK emits 2.2 tons of carbon per flight, while the USA emits 3.1 tons.
Surprisingly, Canada, situated further north of the USA, emits 2.8 tons of carbon for
each of its residents’ flights to Bali, which is lower than the USA’s carbon footprint.
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

131

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

Asian markets such as China and Japan, located in the western and
northern part of the Korean Peninsula, respectively, emitted the exact amount
of 1,1 tons of carbon per flight of their residence to Bali. Moreover, South Korea,
located closer to Bali, emitted 1 ton of CO₂ into the atmosphere for each flight of
their resident to Bali.
Among the four European countries that are closely situated, Italy and the
Netherlands residents generate 2.1 tons of carbon emissions per flight to Bali.
In contrast, flights from Germany and France produce 2 and 2.2 tons of CO₂,
respectively. Countries at war, Russia and Ukraine, whose citizens travelled to
Bali extensively in 2022, produced identical amounts of carbon emissions for each
flight taken by their residents to Bali. On the other hand, New Zealanders, the
residents of a tourist destination known for their sustainable tourism, generate 1.3
tons of carbon emissions for each flight to Bali. The carbon footprint of the New
Zealand market is twice as much as the carbon emissions of their neighbouring
country, Australia, which is currently the most important market for Bali.
Based on the carbon footprint calculations presented in Table 1, the
carbon emissions generated by Bali’s top 20 tourist-generating countries can
be grouped into three, categorized by the amount of their carbon footprint.
The three groups are the low, medium, and high carbon footprints. Countries
that emit less than one thousand kilograms (1 ton) of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere for each of their residents’ flights to Bali are classified as low-carbon
footprint markets. Those emitting between one thousand and two thousand
kilograms of carbon dioxide are grouped as the medium-carbon footprint
market. In comparison, those emitting over two thousand kilograms up to 3.1
tons of CO₂ are grouped as the high-carbon footprint markets. The countries
falling within the low-carbon footprint category include Singapore, Malaysia,
Australia, the Philippines, Vietnam, and Taiwan. Those in the medium-carbon
footprint category encompass South Korea, India, Japan, China, New Zealand,
Russia, and Ukraine. Germany, Netherlands, Italy, the UK, France, Canada, and
the USA represent the high-carbon footprint market.
4.2 Discussion
Sustainable tourism can be approached from two standpoints: the tourist
and the tourist destination (Gomes & Lopes, 2023; López-Sánchez & PulidoFernández, 2016). Asking tourists to voluntarily calculate their carbon footprint
and compensate for it through a carbon offset is an example of how sustainable
tourism can be achieved by encouraging tourists to perform pro-sustainable
behaviour. On the other hand, destinations can also play an important role in
achieving sustainable tourism. Preparing a tool for visitors to calculate their
carbon footprint and how much they should pay to compensate through carbon
132

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

offset can help achieve sustainable tourism in a destination region. Preparing a
carbon offset calculator also serves another purpose for sustainable tourism. The
tool can help monitor visitation impact and prepare policy based on collected
data. For example, a tourist destination can use the calculator to calculate the
carbon footprint of each market segment and use the result to select a target
market. Using the carbon footprint calculator to provide data as the basis for an
informed decision in selecting a target market is essential since hoping for the
tourist to calculate their carbon footprint voluntarily and then asking them to
pay for carbon offset is somehow not rewarding. Therefore, a tourist destination
manager may provide a policy to reduce the carbon footprint through carbon
offset while hoping their visitors will voluntarily perform carbon offset.
To be sustainable, the negative impact of tourism should be minimal
(Butler, 1999; Moscardo & Murphy, 2014), and one of the negative impacts that
need to be low is carbon emission (Campos et al., 2022). Unfortunately, tourists
bring their carbon footprint to a destination (Becken & Shuker, 2019). Therefore,
calculating tourism’s carbon footprint is an essential step toward sustainable
tourism (Huang & Tang, 2021) because it will provide the basis to determine
which market is considered sustainable and which is not. The information
can then be used to design a policy to achieve sustainability, for example, by
selecting the most sustainable tourist market.
As the country of origin with the lowest carbon footprint, Singapore,
Malaysia, Australia, Philippines, Vietnam, and Taiwan are the tourist markets
that will cause minimum environmental damage when they travel to Bali. With
CO₂ emission that is under 1 ton, the amount of CO₂ released to the atmosphere
will not be as much as if the Netherlands, Italy, the UK, France, Canada, and the
USA do the visit to Bali. It is true even though long-haul travellers are known
to stay longer at a destination (Bao & McKercher, 2008; Sun et al., 2020), thus
spending more money, which advocates the decision to select the long-haul
market as the target market. Therefore, this article recommended that the tourism
authority of Bali choose low-carbon footprint countries as the target market for
Bali for the upcoming year. While in line with the Carbon Reduction Framework
to progress toward the nett-zero carbon agenda (Gössling & Higham, 2021), this
recommendation also serves another purpose. Selecting more ASEAN countries
as the primary target market for Bali tourism will benefit the ASEAN intercommunity connectivity through tourism in creating The ASEAN community
(Karim et al., 2022). It will also increase the sense of belonging among its people
(Fardhiyanti & Wee, 2022), and contribute to the region’s prosperity (Arnakim
et al., 2023).
This article also proposed that demarketing strategies should be
implemented in the medium- and high-carbon footprint tourist markets to
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

133

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

reduce their number. Bali has been known to have implemented the demarketing
strategy. In their seminal work on demarketing, Kotler & Levy (1971) argued
that the government of Bali was reported to have chosen to accept the smaller
number of higher-spending tourists instead of targeting the large number of
low-spending tourists. They are mentioned as follows:
“For example, the island of Bali in the South Pacific has long been a
tourist’s dream. In recent years, it has attracted a larger number of tourists
than can be handled comfortably with its facilities. The island is in danger
of becoming overcrowded and spoiled. If tourism goes unchecked, Bali
faces the same fate as Hawaii, which has lost its pristine appeal because
of teeming crowds and soaring prices. The authorities in Bali are aware
of this danger and are considering measures to reduce demand. Their
demarketing strategy is to reduce the island’s attractiveness to middleincome tourists while maintaining or increasing its appeal to highincome tourists. They prefer fewer higher-spending tourists to a larger
number of lower-spending tourists (in contrast to the savings and loan
example cited earlier). To accomplish this, they will build luxury hotels
and restaurants, place their advertising in media reaching the rich, and
build a distinct image of catering to the affluent class.”
However, this article will not revisit the idea of demarketing that
prefers only the rich, as Kotler & Levy (1971) reported. Instead, this article
recommended that the tourism authority of Bali focus its marketing effort on
the low-carbon footprint market and selectively demarket the medium and
high-carbon footprint markets. By choosing the low-carbon footprint market,
Bali has chosen the quality tourists who perform pro-sustainable behaviour (Li
et al., 2023), higher spending power (Nickerson et al., 2016), and more willing
to pay for sustainable tourism (Pulido-Fernández & López-Sánchez, 2016), that
will benefit the sustainability of Bali.
The other reason for suggesting a demarketing strategy for the medium
and high-carbon footprint market is that hoping for tourists to do carbon offset
voluntarily is too much and will yield less-satisfying results (Higham et al., 2015;
Higham et al., 2018). Even though the awareness of carbon offset to compensate
for the negative impact of flying is increasing, there is an attitude-behaviour
gap (Barr et al., 2010; Higham et al., 2015; Tölkes, 2020), where people tend to
perform unsustainably even though they aware of the important of it. There is
also a home and away gap, where people tend to behave more sustainably at
home than when they are away (Higham et al., 2015). Therefore, decarbonising
the tourist destination will require policy initiatives (Gössling & Lyle, 2021) to
regulate the tourism industry with authority so that net-zero carbon will be
easier to achieve. In that regard, this article argued that targeting the low-carbon
134

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

footprint segment while demarketing the medium and high-carbon-footprint
market is a policy that is worth the try.
5. Conclusion
The article aims to determine the sustainable tourist market that Bali’s
tourism authority can target based on its carbon footprint. It argued that the
sustainable tourist market suitable for the sustainability of tourism in Bali is the
low-carbon footprint market, consisting of four ASEAN countries: Singapore,
Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, as well as Australia, and Taiwan. The market
is characterized by low CO₂ emissions (below 1000 kg per flight). This article
recommended that Bali’s tourism authority reduce Bali’s attractiveness as
a tourist destination toward the medium and high-carbon-footprint market
through demarketing strategies.
5.1 Managerial Implications
The managerial implications of this article are for the management of
tourism in Bali and to be executed by the tourism authority of Bali. First, for
calculations of carbon footprint specific to a tourist-generating country to be
carried out, the availability of profile data for each country is essential. Therefore,
conducting regular research to profile each of Bali’s tourist-generating countries
is crucial. The tourist’s profile information can be used to perform the calculation
better since it will allow for the specific parameter calculation to be used for
each specific market, thus resulting in an exact calculation result unique to each
tourist market.
Second, once the research has been done and the result has been obtained,
the carbon footprint for each country can be calculated. The calculation result
can be used to select the most suitable target market for Bali, the segment with
the lowest carbon footprint. Once the target market has been selected, the
tourism authority of Bali can start designing the best product and marketing
strategy to attract the target market.
Third, the result of the calculation should also allow the tourism authority
of Bali to determine the market segment that needs to be demotivated to visit
Bali for their medium and high-carbon footprint and prepare the most effective
demarketing strategy to decrease the appeal of Bali to those countries. Some
strategies that can be considered as the demarketing strategy are:
1. Rebuff the Visa-on-Arrival policy for the country with a medium and
high-carbon footprint to eliminate one of the administrative advantages
previously presented by the Indonesian government which is to
encourage visitors to visit Bali.
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

135

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

2. Determined the quota of visitors accepted from medium and highcarbon-footprint tourist-generating countries and used the visa
application process as a control mechanism to ensure the quota of those
markets would not be exceeded.
3. Ask visitors from medium and high-carbon-footprint countries to
calculate their carbon footprint using the carbon footprint calculator and
compensate for their carbon emissions by selecting any carbon offset
plans available on the Carbon Footprint Calculator of The Ministry of
Tourism and Creative Economy of the Republic of Indonesia.
4. Decrease the promotional effort and travel incentives for the medium
and high-carbon footprint countries to reduce the attractiveness of Bali
to those markets.
The four demarketing strategies above may decrease tourist visits to
Bali, especially from the medium and high carbon footprint market, because
it will require extra effort and resources to visit Bali. While it will negatively
impact the economy of Bali, which has been overly reliant on tourism (Bhaskara
& Filimonau, 2021), the strategies will ensure that the “overtourism” Bali
(Krummeck et al., 2020) will only visited by quality tourists, who will not
threaten the social life of the Balinese, respect Balinese culture and conserve
the environment. The strategies will contribute to Bali’s social, cultural and
environmental sustainability in the long term. If, for example, the tourism
industry of Bali can prepare products that lengthen the stay of the lowcarbon footprint market in Bali, combined with the sense of “scarce” and the
“sustainable destination” image resulting from the demarketing strategies, we
also hope that in the future, the economic sustainability of tourism in Bali will
be achieved.
Fourth, before the research and better calculation can be done, the tourism
authorities of Bali can use the calculation presented in this article as the basis
to select the most sustainable tourist market for Bali while preparing all that is
necessary to carry out the following carbon footprint calculation better.
5.2 Limitation and Future Research
The carbon footprint calculation discussed in this article is based on
limited data on the profile of each tourist market, thus resulting in the same
calculation parameter being used to determine each country’s carbon footprint.
Interestingly, the result of the calculation revealed two contradictions. First,
being further to Bali than the USA, a flight from Canada will release less carbon
into the atmosphere, thus proving that increasing distance is only sometimes
associated with a more significant carbon footprint. Second, one of the top five
136

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

tourist-generating countries of Bali – the USA – is, in fact, one of the farthest
tourist-generating countries of Bali. Although previous research argued that
distance possesses the ability to decline tourist arrival (Bao & McKercher,
2008; McKercher, 2008; McKercher et al., 2008) and prompt people to engage
in a short-haul trip (Ho & McKercher, 2014), this is not the case with the USA
market for Bali.
To produce better calculation, the parameter used to calculate the carbon
footprint should be specific for each tourist-generating country, especially the
length of stay, the accommodation where they stay during their visit to Bali,
the international airport from which they departed to Bali, and the type of
their flight (direct of continuous). The availability of the data will allow the
calculation of the carbon footprint to be carried out specifically for each country,
thus resulting in a better understanding of the carbon footprint of each market.
Therefore, this article recommended that the tourism authority of Bali conduct
research every year to profile each target market of Bali. The research should
be designed and executed in the best possible way to ensure quality results.
Besides providing data for calculating carbon footprint, the research will also
serve another essential purpose, such as designing a suitable tourism product
and experience for each target market.
Bibliography
Arnakim, L. Y., Karim, M. F., Mursitama, T. N., & Tahalele, M. P. (2023). Tourism
in ASEAN: A Catalyst for Regional Integration. Journal of ASEAN Studies,
11(1). https://doi.org/10.21512/jas.v11i1.10506
Bao, Y. F., & McKercher, B. (2008). The effect of distance on tourism in
Hong Kong: A comparison of short haul and long haul visitors.
Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 13(2), 101–111. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10941660802048332
Barr, S., Shaw, G., Coles, T., & Prillwitz, J. (2010). ‘A holiday is a holiday’:
practicing sustainability, home and away. Journal of Transport Geography,
18, 474–481.
Becken, S., Friedl, H., Stantic, B., Connolly, R. M., & Chen, J. (2021). Climate
crisis and flying: social media analysis traces the rise of “flightshame.”
Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(9), 1450–1469. https://doi.org/10.1080/09
669582.2020.1851699
Becken, S., & Shuker, J. (2019). A framework to help destinations manage carbon
risk from aviation emissions. Tourism Management, 71, 294–304. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.10.023
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

137

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

Beeton, S., & Benfield, R. (2002). Demand control: The case for demarketing
as a visitor and environmental management tool. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, 10(6), 497–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580208667184
Bhaskara, G. I., & Filimonau, V. (2021). The COVID-19 pandemic and
organisational learning for disaster planning and management: A
perspective of tourism businesses from a destination prone to consecutive
disasters. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 46, 364–375.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.01.011
Boley, B. B., & Nickerson, N. P. (2013). Profiling geotravelers: An a priori
segmentation identifying and defining sustainable travelers using the
Geotraveler Tendency Scale (GTS). Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(2),
314–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2012.692684
Butler, R. (2018). Sustainable tourism in sensitive environments: AWolf in
sheep’s clothing? Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/
su10061789
Butler, R. W. (1999). Sustainable tourism: A state-of-the-art review. Tourism
Geographies, 1(1), 7–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616689908721291
Butler, R. W. (2019). Tourism carrying capacity research: a perspective article.
Tourism Review. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-05-2019-0194
Campos, C., Laso, J., Cristóbal, J., Albertí, J., Bala, A., Fullana, M., Fullana-iPalmer, P., Margallo, M., & Aldaco, R. (2022). Towards more sustainable
tourism under a carbon footprint approach: The Camino Lebaniego case
study. Journal of Cleaner Production, 369(July). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2022.133222
Carvache-Franco, M., Segarra-Oña, M., & Carrascosa López, C. (2019).
Segmentation and motivations in eco-tourism: The case of a coastal
national park. Ocean & Coastal Management, 1–8. https://doi.org/https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.05.014
Carvache-Franco, M., Segarra-Oña, M., & Carrascosa-López, C. (2019a).
Motivations analysis in ecotourism through an empirical application:
Segmentation, characteristics and motivations of the consumer. Geojournal
of Tourism and Geosites, 24(1), 60–73. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.24106-343
Carvache-Franco, M., Segarra-Oña, M., & Carrascosa-López, C. (2019b).
Segmentation by motivation in ecotourism: Application to protected
areas in Guayas, Ecuador. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(1), 1–19. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su11010240
Clements, M. A. (1989). Selecting tourist traffic by demarketing. Tourism
Management, 10(2), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(89)90048-4
138

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

Dallen, J. (2007). Sustainable transport, market segmentation and tourism: The
Looe Valley Branch Line Railway, Cornwall, UK. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, 15(2), 180–199. https://doi.org/10.2167/jost636.0
Dann, G. M. s. (1981). Tourist Motivation An Appraisal. Annals of Tourism
Research, VIII (2), 187–219.
Demolingo, R. H., Adnyana, P. P., Indrajaya, T., & Saptenno, M. A. I. (2024).
Mapping the Evolution of Tourism Studies in Bali: A Comprehensive
Network Analysis. Jurnal Kajian Bali (Journal of Bali Studies), 14(02). https://
doi.org/10.24843/JKB.2024.v14.i02.p14
Dolnicar, S. (2004). Insights into sustainable tourists in Austria: A data-based a
priori segmentation approach. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 12(3), 209–
218. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580408667234
Eiseman, D. (2018). Marketing sustainable tourism: Principles and practice.
Tourism Planning and Destination Marketing, 121–140. https://doi.
org/10.1108/978-1-78756-291-220181006
Fardhiyanti, G., & Wee, V. (2022). Enhancing Social Integration through
Intra-ASEAN Travel. Journal of ASEAN Studies, 10(1), 43–59. https://doi.
org/10.21512/jas.v10i1.6929
Fung, C. K. W., & Jim, C. Y. (2015). Segmentation by motivation of Hong Kong
Global Geopark visitors in relation to sustainable nature-based tourism.
International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 22(1),
76–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2014.999262
Gomes, S., & Lopes, J. M. (2023). Insights for Pro-Sustainable Tourist Behavior:
The Role of Sustainable Destination Information and Pro-Sustainable
Tourist Habits. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118856
Gössling, S., Hanna, P., Higham, J., Cohen, S., & Hopkins, D. (2019). Can
we fly less? Evaluating the ‘necessity’ of air travel. Journal of Air
Transport Management, 81(Unwto 2018), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jairtraman.2019.101722
Gössling, S., & Higham, J. (2021). The Low-Carbon Imperative: Destination
Management under Urgent Climate Change. Journal of Travel Research,
60(6), 1167–1179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520933679
Gössling, S., Humpe, A., Fichert, F., & Creutzig, F. (2021). COVID-19 and
pathways to low-carbon air transport until 2050. Environmental Research
Letters, 16(3). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abe90b
Gössling, S., & Lyle, C. (2021). Transition policies for climatically sustainable
aviation. Transport Reviews, 41(5), 643–658. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441
647.2021.1938284
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

139

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

Gössling, S., Scott, D., & Hall, C. M. (2015). Inter-market variability in CO2
emission-intensities in tourism: Implications for destination marketing
and carbon management. Tourism Management, 46, 203–212. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.06.021
Happonen, M., Rasmusson, L., Elofsson, A., & Kamb, A. (2023). Aviation’s
climate impact allocated to inbound tourism: decision-making insights
for “climate-ambitious” destinations. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 31(8),
1885–1901. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2022.2080835
Hertwig, F., & Lusby, C. (2021). Benefits and opportunities of international
volunteer tourism–sustainable travel post pandemic. World Leisure Journal,
63(1), 14–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/16078055.2021.1887996
Higham, J., Ellis, E., & Maclaurin, J. (2018). Tourist Aviation Emissions: A
Problem of Collective Action. Journal of Travel Research, 58. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0047287518769764
Higham, J., & Font, X. (2020). Decarbonising academia: confronting our climate
hypocrisy. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.108
0/09669582.2019.1695132
Higham, J., Reis, A. C., & Cohen, S. A. (2015). Australian climate concern and the
‘attitude-behaviour gap.’ Current Issues in Tourism. https://doi.org/10.1080
/13683500.2014.1002456.Australian
Ho, G., & McKercher, B. (2014). A Comparison of Long-Haul and Short-Haul
Business Tourists of Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research,
19(3), 342–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2012.746235
Horner, S., & Swarbrooke, J. (2007). Consumer Behaviour in Tourism (Second
Edition). Elsevier Ltd.
Huang, T., & Tang, Z. (2021). Estimation of tourism carbon footprint and carbon
capacity. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 16(3), 1040–1046.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctab026
Jani, D. (2018). Segmenting tourists using sustainable values: a cluster analysis
of Tanzanian inbound tourism. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality
and Tourism. https://doi.org/10.1080/1528008X.2017.1418700
Juvan, E., Ring, A., Leisch, F., & Dolnicar, S. (2016). Tourist segments’
justifications for behaving in an environmentally unsustainable way.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1136
635
Karim, M. F., Mursitama, T. N., & Arnakim, L. Y. (2022). Deepening Connectivity
and Mobility in Post-Pandemic ASEAN. Journal of ASEAN Studies, 10 (1).
https://doi.org/10.21512/jas.v10i1.8868
140

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

Kastenholz, E. (2004). ‘Management of demand’ as a tool in sustainable tourist
destination development. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 12(5), 388–408.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580408667246
Kastenholz, E., Carneiro, M. J., & Eusébio, C. (2015). Diverse socializing patterns
in rural tourist experiences-a segmentation analysis. Current Issues in
Tourism. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2015.1087477
Kawuryan, M. W., Fathani, A. T., Purnomo, E. P., Salsabila, L., Azmi, N. A.,
Setiawan, D., & Fadhlurrohman, M. I. (2022). Sustainable Tourism
Development in Indonesia: Bibliometric Review and Analysis. Indonesian
Journal of Geography, 54(1), 154–166. https://doi.org/10.22146/ijg.64657
Kitamura, Y., Ichisugi, Y., Karkour, S., & Itsubo, N. (2020). Carbon Footprint
Evaluation Based on Tourist Consumption Toward Sustainable Tourism
in Japan. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(6), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su12062219
Klöwer, M., Hopkins, D., Allen, M., & Higham, J. (2020). An analysis of ways
to decarbonize conference travel after COVID-19. Nature, 583(7816), 356–
359. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-02057-2
Kotler, P., & Levy, S. J. (1971). Demarketing, yes, demarketing. Harvard Business
Review, November-December 1971, 74–81.
Krummeck, M., I Komang Gde Bendesa, Made Budiarsa, I Gusti Ayu Oka
Suryawardani, & Agung Suryawan Wiranatha. (2020). Tourists’
Behavioural Intention Towards Ecotourism in Bali Under Consideration
of Issue-Related Knowledge. Management Studies, 8(5), 371–377. https://
doi.org/10.17265/2328-2185/2020.05.003
Lee, S. H., Wu, S. C., & Li, A. (2018). Low-carbon tourism of small islands
responding to climate change. World Leisure Journal, 60(3), 235–245. https://
doi.org/10.1080/16078055.2018.1496530
Lee, T. H., & Jan, F. H. (2019). Market segmentation based on the environmentally
responsible behaviors of community-based tourists: Evidence from
Taiwan’s community-based destinations. International Journal of Tourism
Research, 21(3), 400–411. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2272
Lenzen, M., Sun, Y. Y., Faturay, F., Ting, Y. P., Geschke, A., & Malik, A. (2018).
The carbon footprint of global tourism. Nature Climate Change, 8(6), 522–
528. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0141-x
Li, J., Coca-Stefaniak, J. A., Nguyen, T. H. H., & Morrison, A. M. (2023).
Sustainable tourist behavior : A systematic literature review and research
agenda. Sustainable Development, December. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2859
López-Sánchez, Y., & Pulido-Fernández, J. I. (2016). In search of the prosustainable tourist: A segmentation based on the tourist “sustainable
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

141

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

intelligence.” Tourism Management Perspectives, 17, 59–71. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tmp.2015.12.003
McKercher, B. (2008). The implicit effect of distance on tourist behavior:
A comparison of short and long haul pleasure tourists to Hong Kong.
Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 25(3–4), 367–381. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10548400802508473
McKercher, B., Chan, A., & Lam, C. (2008). The Impact of Distance on
International Tourist Movements. Journal of Travel Research, 47(2), 208–
224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287508321191
Mkono, M. (2020). Eco-anxiety and the flight shaming movement: implications
for tourism. Journal of Tourism Futures, 6(3), 223–226. https://doi.
org/10.1108/JTF-10-2019-0093
Moscardo, G., & Murphy, L. (2014). There is no such thing as sustainable tourism:
Re-conceptualizing tourism as a tool for sustainability. Sustainability
(Switzerland), 6(5), 2538–2561. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6052538
Nickerson, N. P., Jorgenson, J., & Boley, B. B. (2016). Are sustainable tourists
a higher spending market? Tourism Management, 54, 170–177. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.11.009
Palacio, V., & Mc Cool, S. F. (1997). Identifying ecotourists in Belize through
benefit segmentation: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, 5(3), 234–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669589708667288
Pomering, A., Noble, G., & Johnson, L. W. (2011). Conceptualising a contemporary
marketing mix for sustainable tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism,
19(8), 953–969. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.584625
Pulido-Fernández, J. I., & López-Sánchez, Y. (2016). Are tourists really willing
to pay more for sustainable destinations? Sustainability (Switzerland), 8.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su8121240
Putra, I. N. D., Verheijen, B., Ardika, I. W., & Yanthy, P. S. (2020). Affinity
tourism and exotic tourism in Bali. The Chinese and Indian tourist gaze in
the Garuda Wisnu Kencana Park. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change,
19(4), 427–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2020.1797063
Ritchie, J. R. B., & Crouch, G. I. (2003). The Competitive Destination A Sustainable
Tourism Perspective. CABI Publishing.
Sánchez-Fernández, R., Iniesta-Bonillo, M. Á., & Cervera-Taulet, A. (2019).
Exploring the concept of perceived sustainability at tourist destinations:
a market segmentation approach. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing,
36(2), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2018.1505579
Suardana, I. W., Piartrini, P. S., Ariani, N. M., & Kristianto, Y. (2020). Market
Analysis: A Strategy to Increase Visits of Domestic Tourist Post Eruption
142

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

of Mount Agung, Bali. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, 8(3),
117–129. https://doi.org/10.17265/2328-2169/2020.03.005
Sun, Y., Lin, P., & Higham, J. (2020). Managing tourism emissions through
optimizing the tourism demand mix: Concept and analysis. Tourism
Management,
81(January).
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tourman.2020.104161
Sunarta, I. N., & Saifulloh, M. (2022). Spatial Variation of NO2 Levels During
The Covid-19 Pandemic In The Bali Tourism Area. Geographia Technica,
17(2), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.21163/GT_2022.171.11
Taczanowska, K., González, L. M., García-Massó, X., Zieba, A., Brandenburg,
C., Muhar, A., Pellicer-Chenoll, M., & Toca-Herrera, J. L. (2019). Naturebased tourism or mass tourism in nature? Segmentation of mountain
protected area visitors using self-organizing maps (SOM). Sustainability
(Switzerland), 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11051314
Tölkes, C. (2020). The role of sustainability communication in the attitude–
behaviour gap of sustainable tourism. Tourism and Hospitality Research,
20(1), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358418820085
UNEP, & UNWTO. (2005). Making Tourism More Sustainable A Guide for
Policy Makers. UNEP & UNWTO, 53(9).
UNWTO. (2020). International Tourism Highlights 2020 Edition.
UNWTO. (2023). International Tourism Highlights 2023 Edition. https://doi.
org/10.18111/978928442450-4
Veisten, K., Haukeland, J. V., Baardsen, S., Degnes-Ødemark, H., & Grue, B.
(2015). Tourist Segments for New Facilities in National Park Areas:
Profiling Tourists in Norway Based on Psychographics and Demographics.
Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 24(5), 486–510. https://doi.
org/10.1080/19368623.2014.911713
Whittlesea, E. R., & Owen, A. (2012). Towards a low carbon future - the
development and application of REAP Tourism, a destination footprint
and scenario tool. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(6), 845–865. https://doi.
org/10.1080/09669582.2012.680699
Wiweka, K., & Pickel-Chevalier, S. (2022). Bali Tourism Research Trends: A
Systematic Review, 1976–2022. Journal of Bali Studies, 12(2), 370–386.
https://doi.org/10.24843/JKB.2022.v12.i02.p14
Yoga, I. A. M., Budiarsa, M., Ardika, I. W., & Wiranatha, A. A. P. A. S. (2020).
Improving The Marketing Strategy Into 7PS+ for Sustainability: A Study of
Bali, Indonesia. Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences,
104(8), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.18551/rjoas.2020-08.02
JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

143

Anom Hery Suasapha, et al.

Pp. 119—145

Authors’ Profiles
Anom Hery Suasapha is a lecturer in Tourism Destination Program at Bali
Tourism Polytechnic. He is currently in the process of completing his doctoral
dissertation in Tourism at Udayana University, where he also earned his Master’s
degree. Anom has published several articles in the fields of Community-Based
Tourism, Cultural Tourism, and Sustainable Tourism. In addition to his teaching
role, Anom is actively involved in research and community service projects in
Bali. Email: anom_hs@ppb.ac.id
I Wayan Suardana is an academic and leader in the field of tourism. He is
currently serving as the Dean of the Faculty of Tourism at Udayana University,
where he has dedicated much of his career. Dr. Suardana completed his
Bachelor’s degree in Tourism in 2001, his Master’s degree in 2004, and his
Doctoral degree in Tourism in 2015, all from Udayana University. Throughout
his academic journey, he has remained committed to the university, both as a
student and as a faculty member. In addition to his administrative role as Dean,
he continues to teach at the Faculty of Tourism, inspiring and mentoring the
next generation of tourism professionals. Email: suardana_ipw@unud.ac.id
Putu Sucita Yanthy is a lecturer at the Faculty of Tourism, Udayana University.
Dr. Yanthy has produced several research publications related to women,
gastronomy, and culinary tourism, including Developing Ubud as a Gastronomy
Tourism Destination (2017), Exploring the Tourism Culinary Experiences: An
Investigation of Tourist Satisfaction in Ubud (2018), Wisata Gastronomi UbudGianyar (2018), and Srikandi Kuliner (2021). In 2018, she had the opportunity
to participate in a staff mobility program for teaching at the University of
Glasgow, Scotland. From 2019 to 2021, she took part in a postdoctoral program
at the University of Angers, France, where she conducted research on Tourism
Women Education in Bali (TWEB) and published an article titled Gender, Work,
Tourism, and Higher Education in Bali in the Annals of Tourism Research. Email:
putusucita@unud.ac.id
I Nyoman Sunarta is a full professor and former Dean of the Faculty of Tourism
at Udayana University. He currently serves as the Coordinator of the Tourism
Doctoral Study Program at Udayana University. Prof. Sunarta has conducted
extensive research on tourism development and its relationship with natural
resources, particularly water and land. His studies include the carrying
capacity of water in supporting tourism development in Bali, the development
of water-based tourism potential in the Kuta area of Bali, and the Tri Ning
144

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

Pp. 119—145

Selecting the Sustainable Tourist Market for Bali Based on Carbon Footprint

Danu sustainable tourism model in the Bedugul Tourism Area of Bali. Email:
nyoman_sunarta@unud.ac.id
Anderson Ngelambong is an enthusiastic academician with over 18 years of
experience in teaching and research in the hospitality and tourism field. He is
currently a faculty member at Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pulau
Pinang, Malaysia. Dr. Ngelambong holds a Ph.D. in Business Management,
specializing in digital hospitality marketing with a minor in relationship
marketing. Beyond teaching, he is an active author and serves on the editorial
board of several international academic journals. His primary research interests
include hospitality technology, human-technology interaction, educational
innovation, innovative marketing, and sustainable tourism. Passionate about
advancing the hospitality and tourism industry, he is committed to fostering
international academic collaborations that contribute to scholarly, practical,
and social progress. Email: anderson@uitm.edu.my

JURNAL KAJIAN BALI Vol. 15, No. 01, April 2025

145