Journal of Education and Learning (EduLear.
Vol.
No.
May 2026, pp.
ISSN: 2089-9823.
DOI: 10.
11591/edulearn.
Unveiling studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure: a cross-sectional analysis Mohd Zaidi Amiruddin1,4.
Andi Suhandi1,2.
Nuzulira Janeusse Fratiwi2.
Nurdini2.
Achmad Samsudin1,2.
Bayram Costu3 Department of Science Education.
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Education.
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.
Bandung.
Indonesia Department of Physics Education.
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Education.
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.
Bandung.
Indonesia Department of Science Education.
Faculty of Education.
Yildiz Technical University.
Istanbul.
Turkey Finnish Institute for Educational Research.
University of Jyvyskyly.
Jyvyskyly.
Finland
Article Info
ABSTRACT
Article history:
This study investigates studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure, aiming to identify misconceptions (MC) and differences in understanding based on A quantitative method with a cross-sectional study approach was used as the design in this study to explore and measure characteristics involving 186 students with an average age of 17-18 years from three provinces in Indonesia.
Data were obtained using a Four-Tier Test to explore studentsAo scientific understanding.
MC, and ignorance of hydrostatic A gender-based differential item functioning (DIF) analysis was also conducted to evaluate any potential bias in concept understanding between male and female students.
The results showed that MC about factors affecting hydrostatic pressure were prevalent among students, for example: .
believing that hydrostatic pressure is independent of depth.
thinking that fluid type does not affect it.
assuming that gravity has no impact.
These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to address these fundamental MC.
DIF analysis showed a significant variation in understanding between genders, where male students tended to show better results on several aspects of scientific conceptions (SC.
These results highlight the necessity for mapping studentsAo initial conceptions before teaching, to enable the development of targeted instructional strategies aimed at addressing MC and improving understanding of critical physics concepts such as hydrostatic pressure.
Received Oct 31, 2024 Revised Jul 2, 2025 Accepted Sep 30, 2025 Keywords:
Conceptions Cross-sectional Hydrostatic pressure Rasch analysis Tier-Test This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Andi Suhandi Department of Science Education.
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Education Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Dr.
Setiabudi Street.
No.
Isola.
Sukasari.
Bandung 40154.
Indonesia Email: andi_sh@upi.
INTRODUCTION
StudentsAo understanding of the concept of hydrostatic pressure often shows a gap between theoretical understanding and daily experience.
In line with research by Wijaya et al.
Saputra et al.
and Busyairi and Zuhdi .
, who stated that misconceptions (MC) about hydrostatic material are still widely This provides information that tracing student MC in physics learning is one of the crucial things to pay further attention to.
The importance of hydrostatic pressure in physics makes it one of the main topics that students must understand well because it often appears in various daily life situations, such as in diving.
Journal homepage: http://edulearn.
J Edu & Learn
ISSN: 2089-9823
underwater building construction, and laboratory experiments.
Thus, knowing the studentsAo conceptions related to hydrostatic pressure is needed so that learning is beneficial and meaningful in school and everyday By understanding these conceptions, teachers can better align their instructional strategies with studentsAo This understanding serves as a foundation for determining the most suitable learning models and approaches in the classroom, enabling teachers to design strategies that address MC and strengthen correct StudentsAo conceptions are an essential foundation for teachers in determining the suitable learning models and approaches in the classroom .
Understanding studentsAo initial conceptions allows teachers to design learning strategies to overcome MC and strengthen correct understanding.
Research has shown that MC about hydrostatic pressure are not only common but persist across various educational levels .
These MC are often influenced by studentsAo prior experiences and intuitive beliefs, which conflict with scientific For instance, many students believe that the deeper a liquid is the greater the pressure, but struggle to connect this with the idea that pressure depends on depth regardless of container shape.
Such persistent misunderstandings can obstruct meaningful learning if not properly addressed .
Addressing these MC is crucial for improving physics education outcomes.
According to Lin et al.
, the learning model must be adjusted to the characteristics of students, such as learning style, background knowledge, and cognitive level.
The right approach will help create a more meaningful and effective learning experience so students can understand complex concepts such as hydrostatic pressure or another physics concept more Previous studies have used various ways to identify studentsAo conceptions, such as instrument development .
and media development .
, .
The most popular test instruments in identifying conceptions are tier tests such as Two-Tier Test .
, .
Three-Tier Test .
, .
Four-Tier Test .
, and Five-Tier Test .
, .
However, previous studies generally focused on only one dimension of identifying studentsAo conceptions and were often limited to specific groups or education levels in one region.
Previous studies rarely consider variations in MC in large populations such as provinces.
This study investigates the effects of studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure.
While previous research has explored the understanding of hydrostatic pressure in general, it has not specifically addressed how studentsAo conceptions vary across different educational levels and regional backgrounds.
The novelty of this study lies in its comprehensive conception test, which identifies and analyzes studentsAo understanding of hydrostatic pressure through a cross-sectional approach involving students from various provinces.
This research aims to offer a more holistic overview of studentsAo conceptions, providing specific insights into how MC evolve as students progress through different educational stages, and offering contextual recommendations for teaching this fundamental physics concept.
The questions to be answered in this study are: .
How are studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure? and i.
How is differential item functioning (DIF) based on gender-related to the concept of hydrostatic pressure? METHOD Research design A cross-sectional study with a quantitative method is a research design conducted to explore and measure the characteristics or relationships between particular variables at one specific period without intervention to the research subjects .
, .
This design simultaneously collects data from a representative sample of the target population and often uses instruments such as validated questionnaires or surveys to measure the concept of interest.
The data collected is numerical and analyzed statistically to identify patterns, trends, or relationships between variables using descriptive, correlation, or regression analysis techniques.
The cross-sectional study design is adequate for evaluating and mapping current conditions, such as academic background, learning preferences, social skills, and attitudes toward specific learning methods, so that it can be used to obtain information about the studentAos conceptions.
Therefore, this research is beneficial in the initial study to identify relevant phenomena before proceeding with a more complex longitudinal or experimental design.
Participants This study involved 186 third-year high school students with an average age of 17-18.
Participants came from four schools, four districts, and three provinces in Indonesia.
According to Lincare .
, a sample size of 100-200 is considered adequate for obtaining stable parameter estimates in instrument and person The selection of participants was based on students who had received fluid material, especially the concept of hydrostatic pressure.
Table 1 presents demographic information about the participants, including gender, district location, age, and level of study.
The data is structured in two main columns, they are frequency .
, representing the number of participants in each category, and percentage (%), showing the proportion of participants relative to the total of 186 students.
Unveiling studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure: a cross-sectional A (Mohd Zaidi Amiruddi.
A ISSN: 2089-9823 Table 1.
Demographic characteristic Demographic characteristic Gender Male Female District location Banjarnegara (K) Indramayu (S) Sukabumi (C) Sleman (G) Age Frequency .
Percentage (%) Data collections Data collection used the Four-Tier Test to reveal studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure.
The Four-Tier Test was selected as a research instrument because it has been proven to map studentsAo conceptions This is evidenced by previous research using the Four-Tier Test on several other concepts .
, .
The validity and reliability of the instrument were assessed using the value based on the Rasch Approach.
Instrument validity was evaluated through the raw variance explained by measures, which yielded an eigenvalue of 20%, indicating that the validity criteria were met.
Meanwhile, the instrumentAos reliability was measured at 0.
83, categorizing it as good.
The Four-Tier test concept consists of four levels, namely:
primary conception.
level of confidence.
and i.
level of confidence.
Tier-1 is the main question about the concept.
Tier-2 is the answer to the level of confidence in Tier-1.
Tier-3 is the reason for Tier-1, and Tier-4 is the level of confidence in Tier-3.
The form of one example of the instrument used is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
is one of the instruments in the form of Indonesian while Figure 1.
is the result of translation into English.
Figure 1.
Four-Tier Test: .
Indonesian and .
English J Edu & Learn.
Vol.
No.
May 2026: 1120-1129
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ISSN: 2089-9823
Data analysis The data obtained from studentsAo test results were processed using Microsoft Excel and referred to the scoring rubric adapted from Gurel et al.
This rubric classifies studentsAo responses based on the correctness of the answer and their belief in the answer.
The categories used in this study include scientific conception (SC), lack of knowledge (LK).
MC, and no understanding (NU).
The details of the rubric adaptation are presented in Table 2.
Table 2.
Four-Tier Test rubrics Category Tier-1
Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Tier-2
Sure
Sure
Not sure
Not sure
Sure
Sure
Not sure
Not sure
Sure
Sure
Not sure
Not sure
Sure
Sure
Not sure
Not sure
Tier-3
Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Wrong
Tier-4
Sure
Not sure
Sure
Not sure
Sure
Not sure
Sure
Not sure
Sure
Not sure
Sure
Not sure
Sure
Not sure
Sure
Not sure
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This study presents two main findings: the categories of studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure and DIF analysis based on gender.
The categories of studentsAo conceptions include SC.
LK.
MC, and NU incomprehension on the concept of hydrostatic pressure identified through tests and scoring rubrics that have been adjusted.
In addition.
DIF analysis was conducted to determine whether there were significant differences in the difficulty level of the questions or how male and female students understood the concepts Both results are further discussed in the discussion section to explore further the differences in conception and gender factors that affect learning outcomes on hydrostatic pressure.
StudentAos conception of the hydrostatic pressure Mapping studentsAo conceptions is crucial because it refers to the SCs of experts that occur naturally and are not made up.
In this case, the concept measured is hydrostatic pressure in a fluid material.
The results of measuring these conceptions are presented in detail in Table 3.
The table shows the distribution of studentsAo understanding of the concept of hydrostatic pressure based on two questions (Q1 and Q.
categorized into SC.
LK.
MC, and NU.
In question Q1, 42 students .
58%) had corrected scientific understanding.
in question Q2, the number increased to 73 .
25%).
This shows an increase in studentsAo understanding of the second question.
On the other hand, the LK category decreased from 55 students .
57%) in Q1 to 11 students .
91%) in Q2, which indicated that fewer students were hesitant or unsure of their answers.
However, the MC category remained the most numerous, with 57 students .
65%) in Q1 and 82 students .
09%) in Q2.
This shows that the MC category still dominates studentsAo conceptions.
Meanwhile, the number of students in the NU category decreased from 32 students .
20%) in Q1 to 20 students .
75%) in Q2, which showed an overall improvement in understanding.
The two questions only differed in question construction, namely in question Q1 in the form of a statement and question Q2 in the form of a picture with a particular explanation.
The accumulated distribution of studentsAo conceptions is presented in Figure 2.
DIF based on gender To ensure that the item is not biased towards a particular group, a DIF analysis by gender .
ale and femal.
was conducted, which is presented in Figure 3.
The black line (L) decreases significantly below the zero axis, indicating that the item disadvantages this group.
In contrast, the red line (P) increases sharply above zero, indicating that the same item advantages this group.
Meanwhile, the green line is between the two groups, which shows the ideal model according to the Rasch model.
Figure 3 shows significant differences in how items in the test work for each gender group.
The group represented by the red line (P) appears to gain from the items, while the group with the black line (L) shows a disadvantage.
This indicates a potential bias in the items that could unfairly affect the results for either group.
Unveiling studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure: a cross-sectional A (Mohd Zaidi Amiruddi.
A ISSN: 2089-9823 Table 3.
Distribution of student conceptions Questions Category Students code
56LC, 59PC, 69PC, 154LC, 124PC, 127PG, 40LS, 68PC, 118PG, 8PK,
11PK, 25PS, 66PC, 98LG, 99LG, 100LG, 120PG, 121PG, 134LG,
137LG, 151PC, 159PC, 162PC, 165PC, 169PK, 170PK, 175PK, 186PK,
1PK, 4PC, 24PS, 30LS, 34PS, 41PS, 70PC, 72PC, 114LC, 122LG,
129LC, 130LC, 132PC, 148LC, 163LC, 172PK, 185LK
5LC, 23KS, 33PS, 45PK, 65PC, 78PC, 147PC, 157PC, 40LS, 68PC,
118PG, 7PC, 10PK, 44PS, 46LK, 93PK, 95PK, 103LG, 106PG, 116PG,
117PG, 119PG, 126PG, 133LG, 135LG, 138LG, 139PG, 140PG, 141PG,
143LK, 155PC, 156LC, 9LK, 15PS, 17PS, 18PS, 31PS, 36PS, 43PK,
49LK, 53LC, 57LC, 71PC, 73PC, 74PC, 76LC, 77PC, 97PC, 128PC,
143LK, 145PC, 178PK, 180LK, 182PK, 183LK
3PK, 22PS, 62PC, 131LG, 42PS, 47PK, 102PC, 123PC, 167PC, 184LK,
29LS, 38PS, 48PK, 50PK, 84PC, 85PC, 86PC, 88PC, 90LC, 91LC, 92PC,
110PG, 115PG, 136LG, 153PC, 164PC, 168PK, 177PK, 12PS, 13PS,
26PS, 32PS, 35LS, 37PS, 39LS, 52PK, 55PC, 58PC, 60LC, 61PC, 75LC,
79LC, 80PC, 81LC, 82LC, 94PK, 96LC, 105LC, 146LC, 149PC, 160LK,
161LC, 166PC, 173PK, 174PK, 179PK, 181LK
19PS, 27PS, 125PC, 171LK,2PK, 51LK, 83PC, 87PC, 89PC, 101PG,
104PG, 107PG, 108PG, 109PG, 111PG, 112PG, 113PG, 144PK, 158LC,
6PK, 14PS, 16PS, 20PS, 21PS, 28LS, 54LC, 63PC, 64PC, 67PC, 150PC,
152PC, 176PK
2PK, 51LK, 83PC, 87PC, 89PC, 101PG, 104PG, 107PG, 108PG, 109PG,
111PG, 112PG, 113PG, 144PK, 158LC, 7PC, 10PK, 44PS, 46LK, 93PK,
95PK, 103LG, 106PG, 116PG, 117PG, 119PG, 126PG, 133LG, 135LG,
138LG, 139PG, 140PG, 141PG, 142LK, 155PC, 156LC, 8PK, 11PK,
25PS, 66PC, 98LG, 99LG, 100LG, 120PG, 121PG, 134LG, 137LG,
151PC, 159PC, 162PC, 165PC, 169PK, 170PK, 175PK, 186PK, 29LS,
38PS, 48PK, 50PK, 84PC, 85PC, 86PC, 88PC, 90LC, 91LC, 92PC,
110PG, 115PG, 136LG, 153PC, 164PC, 168PK, 177PK
40LS, 68PC, 118PG, 124PC, 127PG, 42PS, 47PK, 102PC, 123PC,
167PC, 184LK
6PK, 14PS, 16PS, 20PS, 21PS, 28LS, 54LC, 63PC, 64PC, 67PC, 150PC,
152PC, 176PK, 9LK, 15PS, 17PS, 18PS, 31PS, 36PS, 43PK, 49LK,
53LC, 57LC, 71PC, 73PC, 74PC, 75LC, 77PC, 97PC, 128PC, 143LK,
145PC, 178PK, 180LK, 182PK, 183LK, 1PK, 4PC, 24PS, 30LS, 34PS,
41PS, 70PC, 72PC, 114LC, 122LG, 129LC,130LC, 132PC, 148LC,
163LC, 172PK, 185LK, 12PS, 13PS, 26PS, 32PS, 35LS, 37PS, 39LS,
52PK, 55PC, 58PC, 60LC, 61PC, 75LC, 79LC, 80PC, 81LC, 82LC,
94PK, 96LC, 105LC, 146LC, 149PC, 160LK, 161LC, 166PC, 173PK,
174PK, 179PK, 181LK
19PS, 27PS, 125PC, 171LK, 5LC, 23KS, 33PS, 45PK, 65PC, 78PC,
147PC, 157PC, 56LC, 59PC, 69PC, 154LC, 3PK, 22PS, 62PC, 131LG
The number of students Scientific Lack of Misconceptions No Understanding Scientific Lack of Misconceptions No Understanding Conception (SC) Knowledge (LK) (MC) (NU) Conception (SC) Knowledge (LK) (MC) (NU) Question 1 Question 2 Conception categories of students Figure 2.
Accumulation of studentsAo conceptions J Edu & Learn.
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No.
May 2026: 1120-1129
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ISSN: 2089-9823
Person DIF plot DIF Measure .
Item Figure 3.
DIF based on gender Discussion The data shown in Table 3 and Figure 2 provide an in-depth insight into studentsAo understanding of the concept of hydrostatic pressure, where different conceptions are categorized into SC.
LK.
MC, and NU.
The misconception category on the concept of hydrostatic pressure still dominates in Q1 and Q2.
This is in line with previous research that revealed the concept of hydrostatic pressure .
, .
Such MC must be addressed because they affect studentsAo overall conceptual understanding and potentially affect their ability to apply correct scientific concepts in the future.
According to Kharrazi et al.
, when MC are not identified and addressed, students may continue to carry them, hindering their understanding of more complex Thus, revealing conceptions and remediating MC are essential for studentsAo progress.
Students with correct concepts are more likely to apply their scientific knowledge effectively in various contexts, both in the classroom and real-life situations .
, .
Ae.
In addition, students with scientific understanding are also more confident in facing challenging problems or tasks because they have a strong conceptual basis.
The misconception in Q1 was that students chose the option Authere is no hydrostatic pressure at the point near the holeAy because they misunderstood that hydrostatic pressure depends on whether water flows out or not.
The average studentAos reasoning was Authere is no hydrostatic pressure and air pressure at the point near the hole because the system is static and hermetically sealedAy.
The students think that hydrostatic pressure only occurs if there is water movement, so when water does not flow out, hydrostatic pressure is considered non-existent.
Then in Q2 .
t the same dept.
, students chose the answer Aufish A experiences hydrostatic pressure while fish B does not experience hydrostatic pressureAy on the grounds that Authe rocks around fish A are considered to AoremoveAo hydrostatic pressure from the surrounding waterAy and Austudents misunderstand that the presence of objects such as rocks significantly affects hydrostatic pressureAy.
In fact, hydrostatic pressure only depends on three factors: .
the depth of the object in the fluid.
the density of the fluid.
the acceleration of gravity.
Therefore, since fish A and fish B are at the same depth, they both experience the same hydrostatic pressure, regardless of the presence of rocks around fish A.
The rocks do not prevent the fluid from exerting pressure on fish A, as the fluid pressure acts in all directions.
By conducting conception mapping, teachers can design appropriate learning for students, especially those lacking concepts.
Exploring further related to the distribution of studentsAo conceptions, a DIF analysis was conducted to see the potential bias.
DIF analysis based on gender in Figure 3 highlights gender bias against items.
Females with red lines (P) benefit from the items, while males with black lines (L) are disadvantaged.
It is crucial to address this bias to make the test results more fair and valid for all students .
, .
Previous research has also examined DIF based on gender to anticipate item bias .
, .
Using Rasch models can also help detect item bias so that problematic items can be improved or removed to maintain test fairness for both gender groups.
In education, the importance of DIF analysis based on gender is not only limited to identifying bias but also plays a role in improving the quality of learning evaluation .
, .
Unaddressed item bias can result in incorrect interpretations of studentsAo abilities and can disadvantage certain groups .
, .
By performing bias detection through the Rasch model, educators and researchers can make more informed decisions regarding revising or removing problematic items .
, .
In addition, adjustments to evaluation instruments based on the results of DIF analysis should also ensure proportional gender In this study, female dominated, which could be the reason why DIF measurement favors female.
line with Verdugo-Castro et al.
Skurka et al.
, gender proportionality is important to consider in the measurement of DIF because it ensures that the items measured have a fair bias among the gender groups being compared.
This also has a positive impact on improving the quality of assessment and the validity of Unveiling studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure: a cross-sectional A (Mohd Zaidi Amiruddi.
A ISSN: 2089-9823 test results and ultimately contributes to improved learning and optimal development of student potential .
Ae.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study indicate that MC about hydrostatic pressure remain a significant challenge in physics education.
The findings provide convincing evidence that mapping studentsAo conceptions before teaching can help tailor teaching approaches and address MC, ultimately support more effective learning and understand of important physics concepts.
Specifically, three factors-depth, fluid density and gravitational acceleration-were at the core of studentsAo MC about hydrostatic pressure.
In addition, this study shows that mapping studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure can identify significant MC, especially in the presence of gender differences in understanding.
Future research could explore the development of alternative teaching materials or learning media that effectively address these MC, with methods that are feasible to implement in diverse classroom settings.
This study confirms the importance of mapping studentsAo conceptions of hydrostatic pressure due to the high level of MC.
However, further research is needed to confirm the generalizability of these findings, especially regarding gender differences in understanding and the long-term impact of conception mapping on teaching ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The researcher would like to thank the research partners who have helped in the implementation of the research results.
The research partners are Physics teachers Nur Arviyanti Himawan.
Shita Ayu Amalia.
Syna Purnama Alam, and Asep Dedy Sutrisno.
FUNDING INFORMATION
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Education.
Culture.
Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia with DRTPM and AuProgram Pendidikan Magister Menuju Doktor untuk Sarjana Unggul (PMDSU) Batch VII and Program Peningkatan Kualitas Publikasi Internasional (PKPI)Ay which has provided funding support and opportunities.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS STATEMENT
This journal uses the Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT) to recognize individual author contributions, reduce authorship disputes, and facilitate collaboration.
Name of Author Mohd Zaidi Amiruddin Andi Suhandi Nuzulira Janeusse Fratiwi Nurdini Achmad Samsudin Bayram Costu C : Conceptualization M : Methodology So : Software Va : Validation Fo : Formal analysis ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue I : Investigation R : Resources D : Data Curation O : Writing - Original Draft E : Writing - Review & Editing ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue ue Vi : Visualization Su : Supervision P : Project administration Fu : Funding acquisition CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT The authors have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
INFORMED CONSENT
The authors have obtained informed consent from all individuals included in this study.
J Edu & Learn.
Vol.
No.
May 2026: 1120-1129
J Edu & Learn
ISSN: 2089-9823
ETHICAL APPROVAL
This study was conducted in full compliance with ethical guidelines and regulations.
All participants provided informed consent, and their anonymity was strictly maintained.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, [AS], upon reasonable request.
REFERENCES