Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Vol 9.
No 1 .
: 107Ae124.
DOI: 10.
21580/pjpp.
ISSN 2527-7456 .
2502-9363 .
Validity study of the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-being in Malaysian samples Siti Rashidah Yusoff ,1 Suzana Mohd Hoesni ,1A Nur Afrina Rosharudin ,1 Noor Azimah Muhammad 2 Centre for Research in Psychology and Human Well-being.
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities.
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Selangor Ae Malaysia.
2Department of Family Medicine.
Faculty of Medicine.
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Kuala Lumpur Ae Malaysia Abstract: The EPOCH (Engagement.
Perseverance.
Optimism.
Connectedness.
Happines.
Measure of Adolescent Well-being is a newly developed scale designed to evaluate adolescent well-being and positive functioning.
This study assesses its validity and reliability in a Malay language version.
A total of 444 participants .
boys and 255 girl.
aged 13 and 14 were recruited from public schools in Malaysia.
The EPOCH measure demonstrated excellent construct, convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity, as well as reliability, in the sample.
Confirmatory factor analysis showed an adequate model fit (CMIN/df = 2.
RMSEA = .
CFI = .
GFI = .
TLI = .
, while all the subscales had composite reliability above .
70, indicating satisfactory convergent validity.
The measure and its subscales exhibited significant positive correlations with cognitive reappraisal (CR), ranging from .
< .
, and negative correlations with expressive suppression (ES), ranging from .
04 to .
< .
Two subscales .
ngagement and perseveranc.
showed non-significant correlations with ES, while discriminant validity showed negative correlations with depression, anxiety and stress .
= .
54, p < .
, except for the engagement subscale.
It is concluded that the EPOCH measure is valid and reliable for assessing adolescent well-being in Malaysia, providing culturally relevant instruments for such assessment.
Keywords: adolescent.
EPOCH measure.
well-being Copyright A 2024 Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi This is an open access article under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercialShareAlike 4.
0 International License.
To cite this article (APA Styl.
Yusoff.
Hoesni.
Rosharudin.
, & Muhammad.
Validity study of the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Wellbeing in Malaysian samples.
Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi, 9.
, 107-124.
https://doi.
org/10.
21580/pjpp.
__________
ACorresponding Author: Suzana Mohd Hoesni .
mh@ukm.
Centre for Research in Psychology and Human Well-being.
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities.
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi.
Selangor Ae Malaysia.
https://journal.
id/index.
php/Psikohumaniora Submitted: 4 Mar 2024.
Received in revised form: 21 May 2024.
Accepted: 25 May 2024.
Published regularly: May 2024 iC 107 S.
Yusoff et al.
Introduction Adolescence is a developmental stage characterized by simultaneous and significant changes in biological, cognitive, and socialemotional development (Chamizo-Nieto et al.
During the transition phase, adolescents frequently struggle with intense negative They also face challenging situations and develop emotional sensitivity (Zimmermann & Iwanski, 2.
Consequently, they frequently find themselves faced with multiple social challenges (Bakar & Hamzah, 2.
, which can precipitate conditions such as depression, anxiety, and stress.
These mental health challenges have the potential to disrupt their overall well-being and restrict their ability to perform essential life functions (Nasir et al.
, 2.
Patalay and Fitzsimons .
discovered that adolescents reported having lower life satisfaction compared to other developmental In line with this understanding, the National Adolescent Health Policy .
, developed under the Ministry of Health Malaysia, views adolescentsAo health holistically, covering social well-being, together with physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.
This policy aims to create nurturing environments that facilitate conducive lives for adolescents, thereby promoting an optimal health transition into adulthood.
The Malaysian Youth Index, conducted by the Institute for Youth Research Malaysia (IYRES) in 2020, showed a reasonable level of living standards and holistic well-being among the Malaysian youth population, consistent with the current policy framework (IYRES, 2.
Adolescents who have greater levels of wellbeing are not only inclined to enjoy successful psychological adjustments but also tend to navigate the transition into adulthood with greater ease and safety (Gonzylez-Carrasco et al.
, 2.
Moreover, those with greater well-being exhibit better capability and resilience in coping with 108 iC academic challenges and upholding values within the school environment (Hascher, 2.
Cultivating well-being is recognized as a pivotal emotional and cognitive prerequisite for fostering an effective and successful learning process (Hascher & Hagenauer, 2.
Consequently, mechanisms to promote adolescent well-being is of immense significance, specifically in terms of their psychological adjustment, academic achievement, and overall learning outcomes.
Traditionally, well-being has been assessed by certain indicators such as financial resources, life expectancy, educational achievement, individual employability, and crime levels (Helliwell & Aknin.
However, within psychology research disciplines, it is conceptualized as the integration of emotional experiences and performance across multiple domains of life (Diener et al.
, 2006.
Ryan & Deci, 2.
The concept of well-being consists of two main aspects: hedonic well-being, which alludes to feeling pleasurable feelings, and eudaemonic well-being, which relates to the sense of functioning effectively (Diener, 1984.
Ryff.
Hedonic well-being relates to positive emotions such as comfort, enjoyment, and conversely, eudaimonic well-being involves a process of discovering oneself and pursuing oneAos intrinsic values (Deci & Ryan, 2.
Therefore, considering the various ideologies that underlie the concepts of hedonism and eudaimonism will help future researchers formulate a better and deeper concept of wellbeing.
It is imperative to employ a multidimensional methodology in assessing the well-being of adolescents, which consists of a variety of favorable indicators (Suldo, 2.
This approach is especially important due to the wide range of concepts that are related to the well-being of A systematic review conducted by Rose et al.
found that four measurements had been developed to measure well-being which Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
Validity study of the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-being A.
focused only on adolescents.
These were the EPOCH measure.
the Patient Generated Index Well-being Scale (PGIWS).
the Social and Emotional Health Survey (SEHS).
and the Child and Adolescent Wellness Scale (CAWS).
Kern et al.
developed the EPOCH measure to serve as a key instrument in assessing adolescentsAo wellbeing.
The Patient Generated Index Well-being Scale (PGIWS) was developed by Verma et al.
to measure patient-reported well-being, while the Social and Emotional Health Survey (SEHS) created by Furlong et al.
is another measurement tool employed to evaluate social and emotional health aspects.
Finally, the Child and Adolescent Wellness Scale (CAWS) was developed by Copeland et al.
to assess well-being among children and adolescents.
The EPOCH measure and PGIWS were designed to assess both feelings and functioning, with each measurement consisting of 20 items.
In contrast.
CAWS and SEHS concentrate exclusively on functioning, with the former comprising 100 items and the latter 36 Among these four assessment tools, the EPOCH measure examines all five subscales of positive well-being, including engagement, perseverance, optimism, connectedness, and Moreover, the EPOCH measure was not only created for the adolescent population but also focuses on both hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing.
Conversely.
CAWS and SEHS exclusively concentrate on the dimension of eudaimonic wellbeing.
The EPOCH measure assesses optimal adolescent functioning by reflecting both the attitudes and characteristics that lead to positive outcomes for them (Kern et al.
, 2.
Therefore, it serves as a valuable addition to the assessments designed to evaluate positive psychological functioning in adolescents.
The EPOCH measure was developed based on SeligmanAos .
theory of flourishing.
According to Seligman .
, the concept of human flourishing consists of five subscales: positive emotion (P), engagement (E), relationship (R), meaning (M), and accomplishment (A).
The subscales, referred to as PERMA, are crucial for individuals to thrive and experience satisfying The PERMA model is also widely used as the conceptual basis for applying positive psychology.
Positive emotions entail a sense of well-being, whereas engagement entails full immersion in Relationships should involve authentic connections with others and meaning that pertains to a sense of purpose and significance in Finally, accomplishment is described by Seligman as the experience of a sense of accomplishment and success.
Kern et al.
subsequently developed the EPOCH measure, a unique assessment tool built exclusively for It consists of five distinct subscales:
engagement (E), perseverance (P), optimism (O), connectedness (C), and happiness (H).
Engagement is the active participation in actions perseverance signifies goal-driven optimism involves belief in a positive future.
connectedness relates to positive social interactions.
and happiness encompasses feelings of joy, contentment, and life satisfaction.
Initially.
Kern et al.
employed the English version of the EPOCH measure to analyze a group of 4,480 adolescents aged between 10 and The participants were sourced from varied demographic backgrounds in the United States and Australia.
The measure was finalized from 60 to 20 items after ten series of validity and reliability investigations had been conducted.
Kern et al.
were also responsible for the development of a well-being theory addressing positive psychological functioning among adolescents.
Through their study, they found that the EPOCH measure had good factor structure and convergent The EPOCH measure has undergone translation and adaptation in multiple languages and contexts.
These include the Indonesian (Setyandari, 2019.
Simanjuntak et al.
, 2.
Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
iC 109 S.
Yusoff et al.
Chinese (Zeng & Kern, 2.
Swedish (Maurer et , 2.
Turkish (Demircia & Ekib, 2.
German (Buerger et al.
, 2.
Persian (Taheri et , 2.
Australian (Kern et al.
, 2016.
Zeng & Kern, 2.
and North American (Choi et al.
Kern et al.
, 2016, 2.
Research has also shown that the construct validity for the five-factor correlated model of the EPOCH measure has an excellent model fit (Buerger et al.
, 2023.
Kern et al.
Maurer et al.
, 2021.
Simanjuntak et al.
, 2023.
Taheri et al.
, 2.
In Malaysia, several studies have focused on assessing the well-being of adolescents utilizing various instruments.
These include the Ryff Scales Psychological Well-being (RSPWB) (Rathakrishnan et al.
, 2019.
Sulaiman et al.
, 2021.
Talib & Kutty, 2022.
Visvanathan et al.
, 2.
Youth Well-being Scale (YWS) (Zaremohzzabieh et al.
, 2.
the Spiritual Well-being Scale (SWBS) (Ibrahim et al.
, 2.
and the PERMA-Profiler (Ramli et al.
, 2.
The instruments assess different aspects of well-being among adolescents in Malaysia.
However, only a few studies have used the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-being (Rahim, 2021.
Sobri, 2020.
Sobri et al.
, 2.
Therefore, it is crucial to adopt and validate the EPOCH measure to assess the well-being of Malaysian adolescents.
In Malaysia, it would be advantageous to have a Malay translation of the EPOCH measure for its effective implementation.
The initial adaptation of the measure was made by Sobri et al.
, who conducted a research study involving 132 participants aged between 13 and 18 from the Kafe@TEEN Adolescents Center in Pulau Pinang.
The results showed that the Content Validity Index (CVI) value for the EPOCH measure was .
At the same time, its reliability was demonstrated by CronbachAos alpha value of .
However.
Sobri et al.
conducted a psychometric evaluation of the EPOCH measure, focusing solely on assessing its reliability and content validity.
Therefore, more extensive 110 iC validity testing, such as for construct validity, convergent validity, concurrent validity, and discriminant validity, is required.
For example, previous studies, especially among Asian countries such as China (Zeng & Kern, 2.
Indonesia (Setyandari, 2019.
Simanjuntak et al.
, 2.
Iran (Taheri et al.
, 2.
have exhibited favorable results in terms of validity.
This study aims to re-evaluate the reliability of the EPOCH measure to assess the stability of the measurement tools.
According to Simanjuntak et al.
, reliability concerns can arise due to cultural differences, which result in varying levels of respondent comprehension.
Additionally, while the study by Sobri et al.
was limited to one state which is Pulau Pinang, our study is designed to incorporate a broader geographical coverage and multiple states across Malaysia, including Kedah.
Johor.
Pahang.
Selangor.
Sabah, and Sarawak.
This study highlights several key novelties and distinctions from previous literature regarding the EPOCH measure.
First, although Sobri et al.
was the first to translate the EPOCH measure into the Malay language, further validation and reliability testing are needed to confirm its Sobri et al.
only assessed content validity and internal consistency, but these alone are not sufficient to fully evaluate the psychometric properties of the EPOCH measure (McNeish, 2018.
Messick, 1.
A comprehensive psychometric assessment should also be included such as construct, convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity (Ohiri et al.
, 2.
Second, while the studies by Sobri et al.
and Rahim .
focused on one state, this study included six different states in Malaysia, providing a broader geographical coverage.
Lastly, although various well-being instruments are used in Malaysia to assess adolescentsAo well-being (Ibrahim et al.
, 2019.
Rathakrishnan et al.
, 2019.
Sulaiman et al.
, 2021.
Talib & Kutty, 2022.
Visvanathan et al.
, 2021.
Zaremohzzabieh et al.
Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
Validity study of the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-being A.
, the EPOCH measureAos focus on adolescent well-being and positive functioning highlights the need for more comprehensive tools specifically for adolescents, particularly in the Malay language.
This underscores the importance of promoting the use of the EPOCH measure in Malaysian research.
The main objective is to evaluate the construct validity, convergent validity, concurrent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability of the EPOCH measure within the Malaysian adolescent sample.
To assess concurrent validity and discriminant validity, the Malay versions of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA) developed by Ali et al.
, and the Depression.
Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-.
designed by Musa et al.
were utilized.
These were selected for their relevance and differentiation with the EPOCH To measure concurrent validity, each subscale of the EPOCH measure was correlated with the ERQ-CA subscales to determine how well the new test aligns with an established measure.
The ERQCA is one of the instruments that contribute to assessing positive well-being.
Furthermore, a study by Lin .
showed a positive association between the EPOCH measure and the ERQ-CA In addition, discriminant validity was assessed by correlating each subscale of the EPOCH measure with the DASS-21 to observe whether they measured different constructs and, therefore, were not closely related to each other.
Previous studies (Kern et al.
, 2016.
Maurer et al.
, 2021.
Zeng & Kern, 2.
show weak associations between the EPOCH measure and the DASS-21 subscales.
conclusion, two main research questions were formulated to guide the research: .
What is the construct, convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity of the Malay-translated EPOCH measure? .
What is the reliability of the Malaytranslated EPOCH measure? Methods Participants The total number of Malaysian adolescent participants was 444, including 189 boys .
and 255 girls .
4%).
Of these, 223 .
2%) were 13 years old, while 221 .
8%) were 14 years old.
The selection of these ages was due to the significant transitions during this stage of life, which encompass changes in physical, cognitive, scholastic, and socio-emotional domains (Santrock, 2.
Consequently, individuals within this demographic cohort are predisposed to encounter significant emotional challenges and manifest heightened emotional volatility (Soto et , 2.
Participants were recruited from six different states: 53 .
9%) from Kedah.
3%) from Johor.
2%) from Pahang.
3%) from Selangor.
8%) from Sabah.
and 69 .
5%) from Sarawak.
The stratified sampling technique was used for the recruitment due to its practicality and suitability for the characteristics of this population (Creswell, 2.
The researchers selected all the participants, including individuals attending secondary public schools.
those who volunteered to participate.
and those who had parental Exclusion criteria were those with special needs, cognitive impairments, or a history of psychological treatment.
Measurements The Malay-translated Version of the EPOCH Measure Sobri et al.
translated the original EPOCH measure (Kern et al.
, 2.
into the Malay Authorization was obtained from Sobri et al.
to include the questionnaire in this This questionnaire evaluates positive functioning in adolescents and is composed of 20 items consisting of five subscales: engagement, perseverance, optimism, connectedness, and Each subscale contains four items.
All Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
iC 111 S.
Yusoff et al.
were calculated using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, indicating Aualmost neverAy.
AusometimesAy.
AuoftenAy.
Auvery oftenAy, and Aualmost alwaysAy.
The overall score for each subscale was determined by adding together all the corresponding items based on each subscale.
higher score indicated a greater level of well-being.
The Malay version of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA) The Malay version of ERQ-CA developed by Mohd Ali et al.
involves two main subscales:
cognitive reappraisal (CR), and expressive suppression (ES).
The questionnaire is available for access without restrictions and consists of 10 items.
Expressive suppression contains four items, while cognitive reappraisal contains six items.
Expressive suppression encompasses the deliberate inhibition of ongoing emotional expression.
In contrast, cognitive reappraisal is related to the way individuals frame situations that shape how they feel about having a different emotional reaction.
All items were also measured using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 .
trongly disagre.
to 5 .
trongly agre.
The overall score for each subscale was calculated by totaling the related items, with a higher score indicating greater use of emotional regulation measures.
The Malay Version of the Depression.
Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-.
The Malay adaptation of DASS-21, developed by Musa et al.
, is employed to assess recent emotional states associated with stress, anxiety, and depression.
The scale is freely accessible.
comprises 21 items and evaluates three primary subscales: depression, anxiety, and stress.
There are a total of seven items within each subscale, and are rated from 0, indicating "not applicable to me," to 3, indicating "very applicable to meAy.
The scores obtained on this scale represent the intensity of symptoms, with higher scores suggesting a more severe display of symptoms.
112 iC Procedure The National University of Malaysia (UKM)Aos Research Ethics Committee (REC) approved the Subsequently, approval from the Ministry of Education Malaysia and the education departments of specific states was also secured.
The adolescent population in Malaysia was then categorized into six primary regions, encompassing the Northern.
Southern.
Eastern, and Western parts of Peninsular Malaysia, together with Sabah and Sarawak.
For the study, all four regions of Peninsular Malaysia were represented by a random selection of states.
Kedah was chosen to represent the North zone.
Johor the South zone.
Pahang the East zone.
and Selangor the West zone.
Based on population figures from the Department of Statistics Malaysia, 11.
9% of the sample size was recruited from Kedah.
3% from Johor.
from Pahang.
3% from Selangor.
8% from Sabah.
5% from Sarawak.
In the final stage, eleven public schools were selected to represent the states.
Subsequently, permission from the selected schools was obtained.
After the school administration approved the study, representative teachers from the schools randomly chose students for participation in line with the inclusive and exclusive criteria.
Since all the participants were under 18 years old, it was crucial to acquire informed consent from their parents.
The students were then provided with necessary details regarding the study and informed that the answers they provided would be kept strictly Overall, the data were collected from September 2022 until February 2023.
During this time frame, a total of 461 questionnaires, together with corresponding parental consent forms, were distributed and successfully retrieved by the researchers, signifying a high level of participant engagement and cooperation.
However, upon thorough screening utilizing the listwise deletion Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
Validity study of the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-being A.
method, it was established that 17 returned questionnaires were incomplete, prompting their exclusion from the subsequent analysis.
Consequently, only 444 fully completed questionnaires remained eligible for the analytical phase.
should be noted that despite the slight reduction in sample size, the remaining responses offered a strong foundation for the following statistical The participants completed the questionnaire in an average of 20 minutes.
Analysis The statistical processing was conducted using the latest version of SPSS, version 29, while confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed using AMOS, version 28.
A preliminary analysis was conducted to identify any missing data, with the listwise deletion method used to address this The researchers then examined skewness, kurtosis, and outliers.
Tabachnick and Fidell .
suggest that the rule of thumb for skewness should be between A2, while for kurtosis, it should be between A5.
To analyze outliers, the researchers accepted Tabachnick and FidellAos .
recommendation that values should be less than 4 and utilized the Mahalanobis DA method from AMOS version 28.
Next, to assess construct validity.
CFA was conducted to evaluate the model fit of the EPOCH measure utilizing maximum likelihood estimation.
Initially, factor loadings for each item were scrutinized, and items with loadings exceeding 1, negative values, or ones below .
40 were considered for removal (Kline, 2.
Subsequently, model fit indices were employed to gauge the adequacy of the five-factor correlated model of the EPOCH measure.
The model fit was tested using goodness-of-fit statistics and the indices with the rule-of-thumb suggested by Hu and Bentler .
Root means square error of approximation (RMSEA) values should be below Tucker-LewisAos Index (TLI) and comparative fit index (CFI) values should exceed .
and the relative chi-square (N2/d.
should be under 5.
Convergent validity was assessed using average variance extracted (AVE).
Hair et al.
suggest that AVE is calculated using the Formula 1:
AVE = ( .
/n .
= factor loadings n = number of items in the model Convergent validity is considered satisfactory for the subscales when their AVE values exceed .
(Awang, 2012.
Fornell & Larcker, 1981.
Zainudin et al.
, 2.
According to Fornell and Larcker .
, an AVE of less than .
50 is considered acceptable if composite reliability (CR) exceeds Additionally.
Hair et al.
suggest that the composite reliability is calculated using the Formula 2:
CR = (O.
2/[(O.
2 (Oc1 Ae .
] .
= factor loadings Finally, the concurrent validity of EPOCH was tested with positive well-being indicators, using the Malay version of the ERQ-CA developed by Ali et al.
Concurrent validity involved correlating each subscale of the EPOCH measure with the subscales of the ERQ-CA.
Therefore, the correlation results were obtained as evidence to support concurrent validity.
Discriminant validity was tested with negative well-being indicators using the Depression.
Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-.
of Musa et .
Discriminant validity involved correlating each subscale of the EPOCH measure with subscales in the DASS-21 to observe which tests measured different constructs and were therefore not strongly related to each other (Piaw.
To conclude, the EPOCH measure underwent an evaluation process to provide a comprehensive understanding of its validity across diverse dimensions of well-being.
Subsequently, an extensive bivariate correlation study was conducted to establish the level of association Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
iC 113 S.
Yusoff et al.
between the EPOCH measure and the subscales.
This analysis provided valuable insights into the concurrent and discriminant validity of the EPOCH measure, specifically concerning the participantsAo positive and negative aspects of well-being.
values of -0.
70 to 0.
26, and kurtosis values ranging 32 to -1.
Subsequently, to evaluate the outliers.
Mahalanobis D2 was employed, with the Mahalanobis D2 value being 71.
This value was then divided by the overall number of indicators .
, generating a calculated value of 3.
This result indicates that there were no outliers in the The summary in Table 1 shows the mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis of each subscale and individual item in the EPOCH Results The listwise deletion method was used to address any missing data present in the dataset.
showed less than .
04% missing data across all the items from all the instruments that had been measured (ERQ-CA.
DASS-21, and the EPOCH Findings from the normality analysis using AMOS software indicated that the data exhibited normal distribution, with skewness Initially, the researchers checked factor loading for each item in the EPOCH measure.
Figure 1 and Table 2 show that the factor loadings for all items were above .
Table 1 Means.
Standard Deviations.
Skewness, and Kurtosis of ERQ-CA.
DASS-21, and EPOCH Item Skewness Kurtosis EPOCH Total Engagement Item 5 Item 7 Item 11 Item 12 Perseverance Item 2 Item 9 Item 17 Item 19 Optimism Item 3 Item 13 Item 15 Item 18 Connectedness Item 1 Item 10 Item 14 Item 16 Happiness Item 4 Item 6 Item 8 Item 20 114 iC Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
Validity study of the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-being A.
Figure 1 Goodness-of-fit Indices.
Two Hypothetical Models Therefore, all items were retained and are suitable for further investigation.
Moreover, the findings from the correlation analysis showed that all subscales of the EPOCH measure .
ngagement, perseverance, optimism, connectedness, and happines.
were significant at p < .
The highest correlation was found to be between perseverance and optimism .
= .
, while the lowest was between engagement and connectedness .
= .
The results outlined in Table 2 suggest that the five-factor model exhibited adequate model fit, as evidenced by CMIN/df = 2.
99, p < .
CFI = .
GFI = .
TLI = .
89, and RMSEA = .
AVE was then used to assess the convergent validity of the correlated five-factor model within the EPOCH Table 2 shows that only the happiness scale was above .
50, while the others were below Nonetheless.
Fornell and Larcker .
advocate that an AVE value below .
50 is justifiable if the composite reliability is greater than .
Since Table 2 shows that the composite reliability of all the subscales is above .
70, each subscale of the EPOCH measure had justifiable convergent The composite reliability value was utilized to estimate the reliability of the EPOCH measure.
The Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
iC 115 S.
Yusoff et al.
results for composite reliability displayed in Table 2 show an adequate value range from .
73 to .
Concurrent validity measured the correlation between the subscale scores of the EPOCH measure and the ERQ-CA using Pearson correlation coefficients, as shown in Table 3.
general, as expected, all the EPOCH measure scales .
ngagement, perseverance, optimism, connectedness, and happines.
were shown to have moderate and positive correlations with each other, ranging from .
40 to .
All correlations were significant with p < .
Moreover, the correlation analysis revealed that the all the subscales of the EPOCH measure .
ngagement, perseverance, optimism, connectedness, and happines.
exhibited significantly positive correlations with cognitive reappraisal, ranging from .
21 to .
All correlations were significant p < .
The overall EPOCH measure also appears to have a significantly positive correlation with cognitive reappraisal .
= .
31, p < .
Table 3 also shows that only three subscales of the EPOCH subscales .
ptimism, connectedness, and happines.
and the overall measure had a negative correlation with expressive suppression 04 to .
18, p < .
However, both the engagement and perseverance scales showed a non-significant correlation with expressive suppression.
The overall EPOCH measure also showed a significantly negative correlation with expressive suppression .
= .
12, p < .
Table 2 Factor Loadings.
CR and AVE of the EPOCH Measure Item
Factor Loading Engagement
Item 5
Item 7
Item 11
Item 12
Perseverance Item 2
Item 9
Item 17
Item 19
Optimism
Item 3
Item 13
Item 15
Item 18
Connectedness Item 1
Item 10
Item 14
Item 16
Happiness Item 4
Item 6
Item 8
Item 20
AVE
Notes: CR = Composite Reliability.
AVE = Average Variance Extracted 116 iC Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
Validity study of the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-being A.
Table 3
Correlation between the EPOCH Subscales and the Positive and Negative Well-being Indicators Scale
EPOCH
DASS
Furthermore.
Table 3 shows the discriminant validity of the EPOCH measure subscales with the DASS-21 using Pearson correlation coefficients.
The results show that the overall EPOCH measure and four of its subscales .
erseverance, optimism, connectedness, and happines.
had a negative correlation with depression, anxiety, and stress .
= .
14 to .
54, p < .
However, the engagement scale shows a non-significant correlation between depression, anxiety, stress, and the overall DASS Discussion Overall, the findings demonstrate good results for the validity and reliability of the EPOCH Specifically, the composite reliability values for all EPOCH subscales were found to be Moreover, the five-factor correlated model exhibited acceptable validity, with each EPOCH subscale demonstrating adequate convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity.
The factor loading values for all items were found to be above .
The factor loading results are in line with those of previous studies (Buerger et al.
, 2023.
Choi et al.
, 2021.
Kern et al.
, 2019.
Maurer et al.
, 2021.
Simanjuntak et al.
, 2023.
Taheri et al.
, 2022.
Zeng & Kern, 2.
The composite reliability values indicate that the reliability of all the EPOCH subscales was The results are consistent with a previous study conducted in Malaysia with an adolescent population sample by Sobri et al.
Furthermore, when compared to studies utilizing the English version and other language translations (Indonesian.
Persian.
Chinese and Swedis.
of the EPOCH measure, our results are consistent with theirs (Buerger et al.
, 2023.
Kern et , 2016, 2019.
Maurer et al.
, 2021.
Simanjuntak et , 2023.
Taheri et al.
, 2022.
Zeng & Kern, 2.
Overall, the conclusions reached by the fivefactor correlated model are acceptable and consistent with previous studies, such as Buerger et al.
Choi et al.
Kern et al.
Kern et al.
Maurer et al.
Simanjuntak et al.
Taheri et al.
, and Zeng and Kern .
Moreover, the results related to the EPOCH measure subscales indicate good convergent validity and are in line with findings from previous investigations conducted by Kern et al.
Taheri et al.
, and Zeng and Kern .
Each scale of the EPOCH measure showed positive correlations with cognitive reappraisal.
Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
iC 117 S.
Yusoff et al.
Gross and John .
state that cognitive reappraisal is an individualAos way of readjusting thinking about an emotional event.
Therefore, adolescents who possess the ability to readjust and reassess their cognitive processes exhibit positive emotions and behavior.
They utilize cognitive reappraisal strategies to create positive recognition of life occasions, thus encouraging the advancement of overall well-being (Lin, 2.
This study has also shown that expressive suppression is adversely related to optimism, connectedness, and happiness.
Optimism can be defined as an individualAos perspective on life, characterized by a positive interpretation of daily occurrences (Jenaabadi et al.
, 2.
Connectedness refers to the feeling of being nurtured through positive interpersonal connections, while happiness envelops the nearness of positive emotions that include feelings of happiness and affection (Kern et al.
, 2.
In previous studies (Kern et al.
, 2016.
Maurer et al.
, 2.
, the well-being dimension has consistently been related to positive outcomes.
the other hand, the concept of expressive suppression, as proposed by Gross .
, is associated with negative outcomes.
There are negative correlations between expressive suppression, optimism, connectedness, and happiness, which align with previous research (Balzarotti et al.
, 2.
Additionally, expressive suppression contributes to an increase in negative emotional experiences (Dryman & Heimberg.
It is ascertainable that diverse emotions exhibit distinct regulatory influences, thereby resulting in variations in the ramifications on the well-being of adolescents.
The study results reveal negative correlations in all the EPOCH measures and mental health subscales, such as depression, anxiety, and stress.
The happiness variable exhibited the strongest negative correlations, consistent with previous studies (Maurer et al.
, 2021.
Zeng & Kern, 2.
According to the description provided by Kern et .
, happiness refers to a perpetual state of 118 iC optimistic emotions, wherein individuals experience contentment with their own life.
Therefore, adolescents who feel happy with their lives tend to have fewer mental health issues.
However, the results show a non-significant correlation between engagement, expressive suppression, depression, anxiety, and stress.
Maurer et al.
propose that engagement is associated with flow, a state characterized by complete absorption in an activity, free from positive and negative emotions.
Hence, it has been explained that flow involves being fully focused and concentrated on the present moment (Lopez & Snyder, 2.
Consequently, adolescents who maintain such focus on their tasks may find themselves less affected by mental health issues.
The validation of the Malay-translated version of the EPOCH measure provides significant Specifically, it facilitates Malaysian adolescentsAo comprehension and responsiveness to the measurement tools.
Therefore, providing them with well-being instruments in their native language enhances accessibility and cultural Additionally, the utilization of the EPOCH measure by practitioners such as academicians, psychologists, and counselors could help to assess adolescent well-being and inform the design of targeted intervention programs aimed at promoting positive mental health The study does have several limitations.
First, concerning concurrent validity, the utilization of just one positive well-being subscale, which is cognitive reappraisal, may constrain the comprehensiveness of the assessment.
Future investigations would benefit from the inclusion of multiple positive well-being indicators to enhance the robustness of the concurrent validity Second, the researchers evaluated the five factors of the EPOCH measure using composite reliability.
However, they acknowledge that the absence of a test-retest evaluation represents a notable gap in the study.
Consequently, it is suggested that forthcoming studies incorporate a test-retest assessment to Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi Ai Vol 9.
No 1 .
Validity study of the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-being A.
ascertain the reliability of the instrument over Additionally, future research could also include other types of validity assessments, such as criterion validity.
Finally, the unequal distribution of study samples across ages and ethnicities indicates a potential source of bias.
This limitation could be overcome by including participants from diverse ethnic backgrounds and a wider range of ages, especially older adolescents.
This would make the results more applicable to the general Conclusion In summary, the study outcomes offer evidence that endorses the acceptable validity and reliability of the EPOCH measure when employed with Malaysian adolescents, as also confirmed by the utilization of CFA.
The instrument therefore emerges as a valuable tool for assessing various dimensions of well-being among adolescents in Malaysia.
Its demonstrated effectiveness suggests that practitioners across disciplines, including academicians, psychologists, and counselors, can confidently utilize the measure in their professional endeavors intended to enhance and evaluate the well-being of adolescents.
By utilizing this validated instrument, professionals may gain valuable insights into the well-being of adolescents, allowing for the design of assistance and guidance techniques tailored to the specific needs of this demographic group.
Acknowledgment The authors would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) for supporting the study and financially sponsoring it (Transdisciplinary Research Grant Scheme.
TRGS/1/2020/UKM/01/4/.
The authors are additionally grateful to Nur Ashikin Sobri.
Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim, and Taufik Mohammad, the developers of the Malay-translated EPOCH measure, for allowing us to use the instrument.
Finally, the authors are delighted to express our heartfelt gratitude to all parents who gave their approval, to the students for their participation, and to teachers for their assistance and support.
Author Contribution Statement Siti Rashidah Yusoff: Conceptualization.
Data Curation.
Formal Analysis.
Investigation.
Methodology.
Visualization.
Writing Original Draft.
Suzana Mohd Hoesni: Funding Acquisition.
Project Administration.
Resources.
Validation.
Writing.
Review & Editing.
Nur Afrina Rosharudin: [O.
Data Curation.
Validation.
Writing.
Review & Editing.
Noor Azimah Muhammad: Funding Acquisition.
Resources.
Writing.
Review & Editing.
References