Volume 25 Number 2
Nopember 2025
Page: 305-322
E-ISSN: 2502-2210
P-ISSN: 1412-7512
DOI: 10.
21154/tahrir.
Al-Tahrir Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Authenticity of The Hadith of The Sultan of Allah's Shadow on Earth and Its Popularity in Muslim Political History SyamsudinA and Sigit Budiyanto1 A UIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya.
Indonesia Corresponding Email: sigitbudiyanto166@gmail.
Received: 10/03/2025 Revised: 30/08/2025 Accepted: 22/10/2025 Abstract The authenticity and political interpretation of the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars remain contested within Islamic scholarship, particularly concerning its role in legitimizing monarchical authority.
This study investigates the uadth through isnAd criticism, matn criticism, and historical contextualisation.
Primary sources include KitAb al-Sunnah by Ibn Ab Aim.
Tahdhb al-Tahdhb by Ibn ajar al-AsqalAn.
Syuab al-mAn by al-Bayhaq, complemented by KuntowijoyoAos historical methodology.
The findings reveal that while some transmitters are problematic, the existence of multiple transmission chains elevates the uadth to the status of uasan li-ghayrih.
In terms of matn, its content corresponds to QurAoanic principles of justice .
dAla.
and consultation .
hrA), framing leadership as a trust and a moral legitimacy for just rulers, rather than the sacralization of political authority.
Historically, the circulation of this uadth from the Umayyad and Abbasid periods to the Malay-Indonesian sultanates demonstrates its use as a political instrument to sustain Theoretically, this study contributes to Islamic political thought by demonstrating that political auadth function not only as normative-religious texts but also as mechanisms of legitimation and critique of power.
Future research is recommended to employ comparative-historical and hermeneutical approaches to further contextualize the role of political uadths in both classical Islamic governance and contemporary contexts.
Abstrak Otentisitas dan penafsiran politik hadis al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars masih menjadi perdebatan dalam kajian Islam, khususnya terkait penggunaannya dalam melegitimasi kekuasaan Penelitian ini bertujuan menelaah hadis tersebut melalui kritik isnAd, kritik matan, dan analisis historis.
Sumber utama yang digunakan meliputi KitAb al-Sunnah karya Ibn Ab Aim.
Tahdhb al-Tahdhb karya Ibn ajar al-AsqalAn.
Syuab al-mAn karya al-Bayhaq, serta metodologi sejarah Kuntowijoyo.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa meskipun terdapat perawi yang bermasalah, keberadaan banyak jalur periwayatan mengangkat hadis ini ke derajat uasan li-ghayrih.
Dari sisi matan, kandungannya selaras dengan prinsip alQurAn tentang keadilan .
dAla.
dan musyawarah .
hrA), sehingga lebih tepat dipahami sebagai amanah kepemimpinan dan legitimasi bagi penguasa yang adil, bukan sakralisasi Secara historis, peredaran hadis ini dari era Umayyah.
Abbasiyah, hingga kesultanan Melayu-Indonesia menunjukkan fungsinya sebagai instrumen politik dalam menopang otoritas.
Secara teoretis, penelitian ini berkontribusi pada pengembangan studi pemikiran politik Islam dengan menegaskan bahwa hadis-hadis politik berfungsi bukan hanya sebagai teks normatif-religius, tetapi juga sebagai mekanisme legitimasi dan kritik terhadap kekuasaan.
Penelitian mendatang disarankan menggunakan pendekatan historiskomparatif dan hermeneutis untuk menelaah lebih jauh peran hadis politik, baik dalam pemerintahan Islam klasik maupun dalam konteks kontemporer.
Keywords political uadth.
legitimacy of power.
isnAd and matn criticism.
Islamic political thought.
A 2025 by the authors.
This is an open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.
0 International License (CC BY NC) license .
ttps://creativecommons.
org/licenses/bync/4.
0/).
Published by Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Ponorogo.
Indonesia Accredited Sinta 2 Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Introduction The uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars .
he ruler is GodAos shadow on eart.
has been widely recognized in Islamic political discourse and frequently employed as an instrument to legitimize authority, maintain monarchical hegemony over society, and provide a shar foundation for theocratic governance.
This doctrine has been invoked since the period of the Umayyad1 and Abbasid caliphates, the Ottoman Sultanate,2 and even within the context of the Malay Sultanates in the Nusantara.
This hadith has often served to justify theocratic rule.
nevertheless, it remains controversial regarding both its authenticity and interpretation.
In terms of authenticity, some scholars deem it auu .
, whereas others classify it as saAof .
Interpretively, some align it with the general principles of Islamic law, while others contend that it contradicts them.
Ibn Taymiyyah, in Majm al-FatAwA, authenticates the uadth both in transmission and meaning, interpreting it as a directive for rulers to embody divine attributes of mercy and compassion.
emphasizes that governance entails safeguarding public welfare, protection, and assistance, with societal prosperity hinging on the rulerAos justice and virtue, while corruption leads to national decline.
The majority of hadith scholars, however, classify al-sulAn eillullAhi fi al-ars as saAof or even mawsAo, often attributing it to Kab al-AubAr, a Jewish convert associated with the transmission of IsrAAoliyyAt during the caliphate of Umar ibn al-KhaAb.
Its themes correspond closely with Jabariyyah theology, which shaped Muslim political thought after the KhulafAAo al-RAshidn.
Maumd Ab Rayyah, in AswA AlA al-Sunnah al-Nabawiyyah, critiques the infiltration of IsrAAoliyyAt through transmitters such as Kab al-AubAr and Ab Hurayrah and challenges the doctrine of adAlat al-auAbah.
5 His critical approach textual comparison, transmitter analysis, and rational scrutiny- supports the classification of this hadith as weak or fabricated, noting its function in legitimizing political authority within Jabariyyah ideology.
Two key issues thus arise: the hadithAos authenticity and the historical context that enabled its acceptance in Islamic political discourse.
This study adopts a qualitative, library-based approach, relying on both primary and secondary The primary source is KitAb al-Sunnah by Ibn Ab AoAim, which preserves the text and chain of transmission of the hadith al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars and serves as the foundation for analyzing its isnAd, 1 Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds.
GodAos Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1.
, 24Ae25, https://books.
id/books?id=Ow-mV50c2TUC.
2 S.
DaAowah dan Kekuasaan: Perspektif Lintas Sejarah Pemerintahan Islam .
npublished manuscript.
UIN Syekh Al asan Aumad Addary.
Padangsidimpuan, 2.
, http://repo.
id/id/eprint/1165.
3 Mohd Anuar Ramli et al.
AuMuslimAeMalay Women in Political Leadership: Navigating Challenges and Shaping the Future,Ay MazAhib: Jurnal Pemikiran ukum Islam 23, no.
: 307, https://share.
google/O2dVqPux0a4YXyalt.
4 Ibn Taymiyyah.
Majm al-FatAwA (Madnah al-Munawwarah: Majma al-Malik Fahd li-ibAat al-Muuaf al-Sharf, 2.
, 5:123.
5 Muuammad obirn.
AuHermeneutika adth Maumd Ab Rayyah dalam KitAb AswA alA al-Sunnah al-Nabawiyyah (Kajian AdAlat al-auAba.
,Ay Jurnal Studi Ilmu-ilmu al-QurAn dan al-adth 15, no.
: 113Ae134, https://doi.
org/10.
14421/qh.
Syamsudin and Sigit Budiyanto / Authenticity of The Hadith of The Sultan of Allah's Shadow on Earth and Its Popularity in Muslim Political History matn, and authenticity.
6 Secondary sources include classical works on hadith methodology, such as Ibn ajar al-AoAsqalAnAos Tahdhb al-Tahdhb, which offers detailed accounts of transmitter reliability and the principles of hadith criticism,7 as well as historical studies like KuntowijoyoAos Pengantar Ilmu Sejarah, which outlines methodological steps in historical inquiry, heuristics, verification, interpretation, and 8 This combined framework situates the hadith within its socio-political context and enables critical engagement with its historical reception within Islamic political thought.
The analysis was conducted in two stages: isnAd criticism .
aqd al-sana.
, which involved assessing the continuity of the transmission chain and the credibility of narrators based on the principles of jaru wa taAodl.
and matn criticism .
aqd al-mat.
, which evaluated textual coherence, consistency with the QurAoan and authentic ahadith, and indicators of theological influence such as Jabariyyah thought.
These were complemented by historical analysis to uncover the socio-political dynamics shaping the hadithAos circulation.
In line with the established methodology of hadith scholarship, isnAd criticism represents external criticism .
aqd al-khAri.
, while matn criticism corresponds to internal criticism .
aqd al-dAkhi.
9 This dual framework, supported by reference to classical compilations of fabricated hadiths .
utub al-mawsA.
, offers a comprehensive assessment of the hadithAos authenticity and its role in legitimizing political authority throughout Islamic history.
Mohd Mujtaba Ahmed explores political legitimacy in the Delhi Sultanate .
AAe14A centurie.
through QurAnic verses, such as QS.
al-NisA .
: .
, and related uadths, including al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars.
While acknowledging its relevance, the study situates this uadth within a broader synthesis of naql sources rather than as its primary focus.
10 Al-KhayyA.
IbrAhm, and Manr examine the Audivine rightAy as a basis for tyranny, citing QurAnic verses and uadths but without analyzing the isnAd or matn of al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars.
11 Similarly.
Karjoo-Ravary discusses its symbolic role in political and Sufi contexts without a detailed authenticity assessment.
12 While these studies highlight the link between religious texts and political legitimacy, they emphasize historical and symbolic dimensions rather than 6 Ab Bakr Aumad ibn Amr ibn Ab Aim, al-Sunnah, ed.
NAir ibn Abd al-Karm al-Aql, vol.
2 (RiyAs: DAr alumay, 1.
, 694Ae698, https://archive.
org/details/14722Pdf/mode/1up?utm_source.
7 Ibn ajar al-AsqalAn.
Taqrb al-Tahdhb, ed.
Muuammad AwwAmah (SriyA: DAr al-Rashd, 1.
, https://share.
google/9EDrgWwCZX93mn2Nr.
8 Kuntowijoyo.
Pengantar Ilmu Sejarah (Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana, 2.
, https://archive.
org/details/pengantar-ilmusejarah-by-kuntowijoyo-z-2/page/n2/mode/1up?utm_source.
9 Syuhudi Ismail.
Metodologi Kritik al-adth (Jakarta: Bulan Bintang, 1.
, 5.
10 M.
Ahmed.
AuIslamic Symbols of Authority: The QurAn and adth in Delhi SultanateAos Political Legitimacy .
thAe 14th Centurie.
,Ay International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR) 7, no.
: 1Ae15, https://w.
com/papers/2025/3/44009.
11 MostafA asan Muuammad al-KhayyA.
Abd al-QahhAr bin IbrAhm, dan Nr Salmah binti Ab Manr.
AuTheory of Divine Right and Its Role in the Industry of Tyranny and the Position of the Islamic Dawah to It,Ay International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 12, no.
: 1699Ae1712, https://doi.
org/10.
6007/IJARBSS/v12-i12/15972.
12 A.
Karjoo-Ravary.
AuAdorning the King of Islam: Weaving and Unraveling History in AstarabadiAos Feasting and Fighting,Ay Center for the Study of Material & Visual Cultures of Religion .
, https://mavcor.
edu/mavcor-journal/adorningking-islam-many-forms-fourteenth-century-persian-history.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam isnAd or matn criticism.
This study, by contrast, complements them through a focused examination of isnAd, matn, and historical context, thereby offering a distinctive contribution to uadth studies within political legitimacy discourse.
This research is timely and significant because the uadth continues to be invoked to justify authoritarian rule, thereby providing theological legitimacy for practices that contradict Islamic principles of justice .
dAla.
and consultation .
hrA).
A rigorous reassessment of its authenticity and interpretative meaning is therefore vital for advancing uadth scholarship and enriching contemporary Islamic political discourse.
Moreover, such inquiry contributes to the development of civic education grounded in the values of justice and accountability within Islamic thought.
Authenticity of the Hadith: The Sultan is the Shadow of God on Earth The uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars is attributed to several Companions AbdullAh ibn Umar.
Umar ibn al-KhaAb.
Ab Bakrah.
Ab Hurayrah.
Anas ibn MAlik, and udhayfah ibn al-YamAnAias well as the tAbi Kathr ibn Murrah.
This study highlights the versions from Ibn Umar.
Umar, and Kathr as representative of the main transmission lines.
One narration, reported through Kathr, states:
AA Ou EI EONAUA Au E EI EN E OEO EO EEAUA o uEON EE IEOI II NAUAuI EEI E EE AO EA AAuEA OEO EO EAA AuIndeed, the Sultan is the shadow of Allah on earth.
Every oppressed servant seeks refuge in If he is just, he is rewarded and the people are grateful.
if unjust, he bears the sin, and the people must endure with patience.
Ay While transmitters like MuAwiyah ibn Aliu and Ab alZahriyyah are considered reliable.
KathrAos status as a tAbi renders the chain mursal and thus weak .
The narration from Ibn Umar, transmitted through Said bin Sinan Abu Mahdi, classified as matrk and accused of fabrication, is considered weak due to both unreliable transmitters and a broken chain that ends with the tAbi Kathr ibn Murrah.
Similarly, the version from Umar ibn al-KhaAb, reported by Ab Nuaym, is also weak because its chain includes Amr bin Abd al-Ghaffar al-Faqim, who has likewise been judged matrk al-uadth and accused of forgery.
Both isnAds, therefore, are lacking in reliability despite conveying the theme of the ruler as Authe shadow of Allah on earth.
Ay Amr bin Abd al-Ghaffar al-Faqim was severely criticized in jaru wa tadl.
Al-BukhAr classified him as matrk in al-TArkh al-Kabr,13 Ibn ibbAn listed him in al-Majrun as a transmitter of fabricated reports,14 and Ibn Ad identified him as a fabricator in al-KAmil f UuafA al-RijAl.
13 al-BukhAr, al-TArkh al-Kabr, vol.
6 (Bayrt: DAr al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1.
, 254.
14 Ibn ibbAn, al-Majrun, vol.
2 (Bayrt: DAr al-Marifah, 1.
, 93.
15 Ibn Ad, al-KAmil f UuafA al-RijAl, vol.
6 (Bayrt: DAr al-Fikr, 1.
, 409.
Syamsudin and Sigit Budiyanto / Authenticity of The Hadith of The Sultan of Allah's Shadow on Earth and Its Popularity in Muslim Political History Consequently, his narrations cannot serve as valid evidence.
Al-anAn, in al-Tanwr Sharu al-JAmi alaghr, cites three uadths on leadership using the phrase AuThe Sultan is the shadow of Allah on earthAy:
advising rulers sincerely, the necessity of governance for social order, and rulers as a refuge for the 16 While transmitted by figures such as Anas ibn MAlik and Ibn Umar, al-anAn emphasizes that these reports suffer from weak chains of transmission.
Muuammad ibn Ynus al-Qurash .
l-Kuday.
was declared a fabricator by Ibn Ad, with alDhahab confirming his unreliability in al-UuafA.
17 Hence, these auadth cannot serve as a sound legal basis, although their moral message concerning just leadership remains valuable.
Legally, they require corroboration from stronger textual or empirical evidence.
Overall, al-SulAn eillullAhi f al-ars is weak in both sanad and matan: its chains are mursal and include narrators judged munkar or fabricators, while al-IrAq in Takhrj AuAdth al-IuyA deems the Ab Hurayrah route saf.
18 The matan is likewise weak, reflecting Jabariyyah ideology traced by al-Idlib to Kab al-AubAr.
In hadith studies, reports are classified as weak .
if their sanad is disconnected, includes unreliable narrators, or their matan contradicts established Islamic principles or empirical reality.
Scholars such as Ibn al-alAu, al-Nawaw, and Ibn ajar al-AsqalAn developed rigorous criteria for authentic .
hadith: a continuous sanad, narrators who are upright .
and precise .
Ab.
, and freedom from hidden defects .
or anomalies .
hAdhd.
However, modern critics such as Schacht and Juynboll argue that isnAds often reflect later constructs serving legal or political purposes.
Hence, uadth analysis must extend beyond sanad evaluation to encompass historical context and the sociopolitical functions of transmission.
Criticism of Hadith and Its Implications for Political Legitimacy The uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars remains a subject of debate in Islamic political discourse, particularly concerning its authenticity and function.
Classical scholars such as al-BukhAr and Muslim prioritized sanad and matn criticism, while Orientalists such as Goldziher and Schacht employed historical-critical methods, viewing political uadths as later socio-political constructs.
16 Muuammad ibn IsmAl al-anAn, al-Tanwr Sharu al-JAmi al-aghr, ed.
Muuammad IsuAq Muuammad IbrAhm, vol.
6 (RiyAs: Maktabat DAr al-SalAm, 2.
, 474.
17 Ibid.
18 Zayn al-Dn al-IrAq.
Takhrj AuAdth al-IuyA (Bayrt: DAr al-Fikr, 1.
, 4:17.
19 Abd al-JabbAr ibn HAd ibn Abd AllAh al-MarrAn.
AuTypes of adths That Have Been Weakened by adth Scholars in Terms of the Authenticity of the Chain of Transmission and the Correctness of the Meaning,Ay International Journal of Religion 5, 1 .
: 474Ae500, https://doi.
org/10.
61707/yykf0g32.
20 Kamaruddn Amn.
AuThe Reliability of the Traditional Science of adth: A Critical Reconsideration,Ay al-JAmiah:
Journal of Islamic Studies 43, no.
: 261.
21 Muuammad Nr Ausan.
AuDari Sejarah ke Studi adth: Memahami Metode Sejarah Kritis dan Penanggalan adth di Barat,Ay al-Quds: Jurnal Studi al-QurAn dan adth 5, no.
: 439Ae451, https://doi.
org/10.
29240/alquds.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Fuat Sezgin refuted GoldziherAos claim of purely oral transmission by demonstrating the existence of early written compilations, thereby affirming both historical continuity and the relative reliability of uadth transmission.
22 His findings reinforce the authenticity of al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars and enrich its understanding within Islamic political thought.
23 In contrast.
Schacht and Juynboll maintained that isnAd often served as a retrospective fabrication for legal or political purposes.
24 This methodological divergence underscores differing interpretive frameworks between Islamic and Western scholarship.
Overall, the hadithAos recurring use across Islamic dynasties and modern contexts reveals that its importance lies not only in transmission but also in interpretation, reflecting the enduring interaction between religion and political authority.
The Hadith: The Sultan is the Shadow of God on Earth as a Political Concept There is no consensus on the notion of a theocratic state following the Prophet.
The early caliphs adopted the title Khalfat RaslillAh rather than KhalfatullAh or ZillullAh, signifying political succession rather than a divine mandate.
Ab Bakr explicitly rejected being called AuCaliph of Allah,Ay affirming his role only as the ProphetAos successor.
The latter title Amr al-Muminn reflected leadership of the community, not divine representation.
Scholars such as Abd al-RaumAn SAlim emphasize that Islam does not recognize religious hierarchy, and the sacralization of rulers derives from pre-Islamic traditions used to legitimize power.
Historical evidence further shows that even the Abbasids did not employ titles like KhalfatullAh or ZillullAh.
In the Nusantara context, the conferral of religious titles on sultans served as a means of legitimizing authority.
Tawalinuddin Haris shows that in the Kasultanan Samawa, such titles reflected responses to 17AAe20A century political and social dynamics.
26 Endang RochmiatunAos study of Palembang Sultanate manuscripts reveals the use of religious elements for economic legitimacy and civilizational 27 Agus Iswanto further notes the Yogyakarta PalaceAos ongoing use of religious symbolism through digital cultural literacy.
28 Notably, no evidence suggests that the Abbasids adopted titles like 22 Muuammad Alw NAir.
Zulfahm Alw, and Siti Aisyah KarA.
AuFuat SezginAos Thoughts on adth Criticism:
Revisiting Ignaz GoldziherAos Views on Doubts About the Authenticity of adth,Ay al-Quds: Jurnal Studi al-QurAn dan adth 8, no.
: 439, https://doi.
org/10.
29240/alquds.
23 Ibid.
," 513.
24 Muuammad Nr Ausan.
AuDari Sejarah ke Studi adth: Memahami Metode Sejarah Kritis dan Penanggalan adth di Barat,Ay al-Quds: Jurnal Studi al-QurAn dan adth 5, no.
: 450, https://doi.
org/10.
29240/alquds.
25 Abd al-RaumAn Salm, al-Muslimn wa al-Rm f Ar al-Nubuwwah (Mir: DAr al-Fikr al-Arab, 2.
, 154.
26 TawAlnuddn Aris.
AuKasultanan Samawa di Pulau Sumbawa dalam Kurun Waktu Abad XVIIAeXX,Ay Jurnal Lektur Keagamaan 13, no.
: 1Ae30, https://share.
google/72Vkbn6n3ltYT32Bl 27 Endang Rochmiatun.
AuPerubahan Ekonomi dan Perkembangan Peradaban Islam di Palembang Abad XVIIAeXIX M:
Telaah atas Naskah-naskah Kontrak Sultan Palembang,Ay Jurnal Lektur Keagamaan 13, no.
: 369Ae392, https://jlka.
id/index.
php/lektur/article/view/231.
28 Agus Iswanto.
AuKeraton Yogyakarta dan Praktik Literasi Budaya Keagamaan Melalui Media Digital,Ay Jurnal Lektur Keagamaan 17, no.
: 321Ae348, https://jlka.
id/index.
php/lektur/article/view/598.
Syamsudin and Sigit Budiyanto / Authenticity of The Hadith of The Sultan of Allah's Shadow on Earth and Its Popularity in Muslim Political History KhalfatullAh or ZillullAh, underscoring that such sacralized titles were political strategies rather than doctrinal imperatives.
Al-GhazAl recognized the concept of ZillullAh f al-Ars as central to Sunni political thought but interpreted it as a mandate for divine justice, not divine superiority.
In Nauat al-Mulk, he portrayed the ideal ruler as embodying justice, knowledge, integrity, compassion, and wisdomAireflecting humanityAos role as khalfah.
Leadership, he argued, is a moral and intellectual trust .
mAna.
grounded in justice and accountability rather than in status or title.
Power devoid of justice, he warned, inevitably leads to corruption and societal decay.
The Title of ZillullAhi f al-Ars: Origins and Development Throughout Islamic history, uadths have served as key sources of political legitimacy.
The uadth alsulAn eillullAhi f al-ars .
he sultan is the shadow of God on eart.
, despite weaknesses in both sanad and matan, has profoundly influenced Islamic political doctrine by legitimizing monarchical authority.
In Malay-Muslim contexts, interpretations of such uadths reinforced male-dominated leadership as both a religious and social duty.
30 The concept of ZillullAh f al-Ars subsequently replaced the HinduBuddhist Devaraja system, incorporating Islamic notions of sacred kingship.
31 Similarly, in broader Sunni thought, this uadth underpinned doctrines promoting obedience and stability, often elevating rulers as divinely sanctioned figures.
32 Hence, a historical-contextual study is essential to reveal how religious texts have been employed to construct political legitimacy across Islamic societies.
The title of Authe ruler as the shadow of God on earthAy first emerged during the late Abbasid 33 Mid-Abbasid sources, such as Ibn Ab AimAos al-Sunnah, include a chapter emphasizing respect for rulers, where most uadths are weak .
except al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars, which he classifies as uasan .
34 Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds note that the idea originated in the Umayyad era as a theological-political construct rather than an authentic Prophetic doctrine.
35 Jaradat and al-BalAdhur further report that Abd al-Malik ibn MarwAn invoked the phrase Authe sultan is the 29 Aumad Manbal Ulm.
AuNegara Adil dan Makmur (Refleksi Filsafat Politik al-GhazA.
,Ay Politea: Jurnal Pemikiran Politik Islam 5, no.
: 124, https://journal.
id/index.
php/politea/article/view/14529.
30 Mohd Anuar Ramli et al.
AuMuslimAeMalay Women in Political Leadership: Navigating Challenges and Shaping the Future,Ay MazAhib: Jurnal Pemikiran ukum Islam 23, no.
: 307, https://doi.
org/10.
21093/mj.
https://share.
google/rvnoMvxmBma3amutM.
31 Ibid.
, 308, 310
32 Ibid.
, 313
33 S.
Dakwah dan Kekuasaan: Perspektif Lintas Sejarah Pemerintahan Islam .
npublished manuscript.
UIN Syekh Al asan Aumad Addary.
Padangsidimpuan, 2.
, 15Ae17, http://repo.
id/id/eprint/1165.
34 Ab Bakr Aumad ibn Amr ibn Ab Aim, al-Sunnah, ed.
NAir ibn Abd al-Karm al-Aql, vol.
2 (RiyAs: DAr alumay, 1.
, 694Ae698, https://archive.
org/details/14722Pdf/mode/1up?utm_source 35 Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds.
GodAos Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1.
, 24Ae25, https://books.
id/books?id=Ow-mV50c2TUC.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam shadow of God on earthAy to reinforce his rule, demonstrating how Jabariyyah theology and religious rhetoric were instrumentalized to consolidate political power.
The concept of ZillullAh f al-Ars (Shadow of God on Eart.
served as a title for sultans asserting divine legitimacy as AllahAos trustees on earth.
In the Malay world, it supplanted the pre-Islamic Devaraja belief, reinterpreting kingship as a sacred amAnah to uphold religion and divine law.
Malay rulers such as Sultan Muuammad Shah.
Sultan Muzaffar Shah, and Sultan Mansur Shah adopted this concept to strengthen both religious and socio-political authority within a hierarchical order.
Similar expressions appeared in Ottoman and Nasrid architecture, including calligraphic inscriptions in the Topkapi and Alhambra Palaces, where rulers proclaimed themselves ZillullAh f alArs.
One Nasrid inscription reads: ZillullAh alA al-jam (The Shadow of God over all thing.
Ay, symbolizing the fusion of religious and political legitimacy in Islamic rulership.
38 Such poetic inscriptions not only reinforced the rulerAos legitimacy but also symbolized the intertwining of religious and political authority within the governance of the Nasrid Sultanate.
In the Malay royal tradition.
ZillullAhi f al-Ars functioned as both an honorary and political title that reinforced royal authority.
As noted by Jajat Burhanudin.
Islam deeply shaped Malay politics, with rulers adopting titles like khalfah and ZillullAh f al-Alam to affirm their dual religious and political Yet, governance in practice was largely managed by officialsAihistorically the Bendahara and Laksamana, and later by modern bureaucratic elites, indicating that while the title symbolized sovereignty, real power rested in bureaucratic structures.
Matn Criticism A systematic analysis of the matn of the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars is essential to ensure alignment with the procedures of matn criticism developed by the scholars of uadth.
First, from the aspect of conformity with the QurAoAn, this uadth presents a problem insofar as it appears to legitimize political authority in absolute terms without reference to the principles of adAlah .
and shrA .
The QurAoAn emphasizes that legitimate leadership must be established upon the principle of justice (QS.
al-Naul .
: .
and consultation (QS.
al-ShrA .
: .
These two verses explicitly repudiate notions of absolute legitimacy that negate the space for criticism and accountability of rulers.
Furthermore, in QS.
al-Baqarah .
: 30.
Allah designates Prophet Adam (As.
) as khalfah f al-ars.
36 Aumad ibn YauyA al-BalAdhur.
AnsAb al-AshrAf, vol.
7 (Bayrt: DAr al-Fikr, 1.
, 111.
37 Muuammad Aidl AdhA bin Zulkurnain.
Pengaruh Feudalisme dalam Masyarakat Melayu (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2.
, 9.
38 Josy Miguel Puerta Vylchez.
Reading the Al-Hamra: A Visual Guide to the Alhambra Through Its Inscriptions (Granada: The Alhambra and Generalife, 2.
, 46, 107.
39 Jajat Burhanudin.
AuThe Triumph of Ruler: Islam and Statecraft in Pre-Colonial Malay Archipelago,Ay al-JAmiah: Journal of Islamic Studies 55, no.
: 211Ae240, https://doi.
org/10.
14421/ajis.
Syamsudin and Sigit Budiyanto / Authenticity of The Hadith of The Sultan of Allah's Shadow on Earth and Its Popularity in Muslim Political History According to al-Qurub .
671 AH), contextually khalfah may be defined as a servant of God entrusted with the mandate to act as GodAos vicegerent on earth, implementing His laws and commands within human society.
40 Thus, leadership in the QurAoAnic perspective is a trust .
mAna.
aimed at promoting universal welfare rather than conferring absolute sacred authority.
Second, in terms of correlation with other uadths, it is important to note the wording preserved in al-Sunnah by Ibn Ab Aim .
AAEE NA
AAcEEA a AcEEa AaO ENA a AI a EA A NO NII N NINN N NINN a NAUAcEEA A AN NII NE N NIN NE N NI a NAUAA which Ibn Ab Aim .
287 AH) classified as uasan,41 is the primary narration to be compared with the version transmitted by al-Bayhaq in Syuab al-mAn .
AA Ou EI EONAUA Au E EI EN E OEO EO EEAUAuI EEI E EE AO E o uEON EE IEOI II NA AAuEA OEO EO EAA which al-Bayhaq .
458 AH) regarded as saf jiddan.
These two variants demonstrate that the phrase al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars should not be interpreted in isolation but in relation to its explanatory clause .
afsr al-khaba.
In Ibn Ab AimAos narration, it stresses the duty to honor rulers, while in al-BayhaqAos version, it depicts the ruler as a refuge for the oppressed, contingent upon his justice.
Thus.
Authe shadow of God on earthAy conveys a metaphorical meaningAileadership as a divine trust that protects the people, akin to a cloud offering This interpretation aligns with the uadth of Ab MsA al-Ashar:
A NOuaE N NI aO EE NAUAO N ENEaO AaO aN NOENAaO NINA
AI NA
A aAI EICaA a AuaIa Ia I ua NaE aEA a AA a A NONIa aE ECAUAcEEa uaE N NI aO EaON a EIE aaIA which affirms that honoring a just ruler constitutes part of glorifying Allah, recorded in auu Ab DAwd no.
4843 and classified as uasan by al-AlbAn .
1420 AH).
43 This uadth cannot be used to justify honoring unjust rulers, as its clauses indicate that the proper response to tyranny is abr .
Ai restraint coupled with truthful counsel.
A literal reading risks legitimizing despotism.
however, when contextualized with QurAnic principles and authentic uadths, al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars underscores the 40 Ab Abd AllAh Muuammad ibn Aumad al-Qurub, al-JAmi li-AukAm al-QurAn, ed.
Abd AllAh ibn Abd al-Muusin al-Turk.
Muuammad IbrAhm Ynus (Bayrt:
Muassasat al-RisAlah, 394Ae395, https://share.
google/GGQcbGRWQM3LpnT6o.
41 Ab Bakr Aumad ibn Amr ibn Ab Aim, al-Sunnah, ed.
NAir ibn Abd al-Karm al-Aql, vol.
2 (RiyAs: DAr alumay, 1.
, 694Ae698, https://archive.
org/details/14722Pdf/mode/1up?utm_source.
42 Ab Bakr Aumad ibn al-usayn al-Bayhaq.
Shuab al-mAn, ed.
Abd al-Al Abd al-amd Amid, supervised by MukhtAr Aumad al-Nadw, 1st ed.
(RiyAs: Maktabat al-Rushd in cooperation with al-DAr al-Salafiyyah.
Bombay, 1423 AH/2003 CE), 9:475Ae476, https://shamela.
ws/book/10660/4825#p1.
43 Ab DAwd SulaymAn ibn al-Ashath al-SijistAn, auu Sunan Ab DAwd, tauqq Muuammad NAir al-Dn al-AlbAn, 1 (RiyAs: Maktabah al-MaArif li-al-Nashr wa-al-Tawz, 1.
, 189, https://share.
google/pAjQCEFsQFQt8sWuS.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam rulerAos duty to uphold justice, not absolute power.
Hence, from matn criticism, its meaning is uasan lighayrih, reflecting the QurAnAos universal values of justice and public welfare.
Analysis of Transmitters and Data The study of the isnAd of the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars necessitates an in-depth analysis of the transmitters involved in its transmission chains, as the authenticity of a uadth is highly dependent upon the credibility of its narrators.
This uadth was transmitted through multiple companions, two of whom are Ab Bakrah .
51 AH), who is recognized as thiqah .
and meticulous in transmission, and Abd AllAh ibn Umar .
73 AH), known for his strictness and precision .
in transmitting reports.
Ibn Ab Aim .
287 AH) recorded this uadth in al-Sunnah and classified it as uasan,44 whereas al-Bayhaq .
458 AH) included it in Syuab al-mAn with the status of saf jiddan.
45 The complete chain .
through the chain of Ab Bakrah is as follows: AuAl-Muqaddam narrated to us.
Muslim ibn Sad al-KhawlAn narrated to us, umayd ibn MihrAn narrated to us, from Sad ibn Aws, from ZiyAd ibn Kusayb, from Ab Bakrah.
Ay46 Meanwhile, the isnAd transmitted through the chain of Ibn Umar is: AuAb Sad al-MAln informed us.
Ab Aumad ibn Ad informed us.
Muuammad ibn al-asan ibn Qutaybah narrated to us.
Muuammad ibn Al ibn Umar RuwAd narrated to us.
Bishr ibn Bakr narrated to us.
Sad ibn SinAn narrated to us, from Ab al-ZAhiriyyah, from Kathr ibn Murrah, from Ibn Umar.
Ay47 Several narrators in these two transmission routes, when evaluated by Ibn ajar al-AsqalAn, one of the major authorities in jaru wa-tadl through his Taqrb al-Tahdhb, show a range of reliability.
the chain of Ab Bakrah, the Companion Ab Bakrah himself is a well-known thiqah mashhr.
ZiyAd ibn Kusayb is evaluated as maqbl, meaning his narrations are acceptable provided they are corroborated by other chains, and he belongs to the third abaqah.
Sad ibn Aws ibn ThAbit Ab Zayd al-AnAr .
223 AH), a grammarian from Basra, is judged as adq .
ruthful and generally reliabl.
though prone to some errors .
, and he is placed in the ninth abaqah.
48 In the chain of Ibn Umar, the disputed transmitter is Sad ibn SinAn, who is considered by the scholars to be adq .
ruthful and 44 Ab Bakr Aumad ibn Amr ibn Ab Aim, al-Sunnah, ed.
NAir ibn Abd al-Karm al-Aql, vol.
2 (RiyAs: DAr al- umay, 1.
, 694Ae698, https://archive.
org/details/14722Pdf/mode/1up?utm_source.
45 Ab Bakr Aumad ibn al-usayn al-Bayhaq.
Shuab al-mAn, ed.
Abd al-Al Abd al-amd Amid, supervised by MukhtAr Aumad al-Nadw, 1st ed.
(RiyAs: Maktabat al-Rushd in cooperation with al-DAr al-Salafiyyah.
Bombay, 1423 AH/2003 CE), 9:475Ae476, https://shamela.
ws/book/10660/4825#p1.
46 Ab Bakr Aumad ibn Amr ibn Ab Aim, al-Sunnah, ed.
NAir ibn Abd al-Karm al-Aql, vol.
2 (RiyAs: DAr alumay, 1.
, 694Ae698, https://archive.
org/details/14722Pdf/mode/1up?utm_source 47 Ab Bakr Aumad ibn al-usayn al-Bayhaq.
Shuab al-mAn, ed.
Abd al-Al Abd al-amd Amid, supervised by MukhtAr Aumad al-Nadw, 1st ed.
(RiyAs: Maktabat al-Rushd in cooperation with al-DAr al-Salafiyyah.
Bombay, 1423 AH/2003 CE), 9:475Ae476, https://shamela.
ws/book/10660/4825#p1.
48 Ibn ajar al-AsqalAn.
Taqrb al-Tahdhb, ed.
Muuammad AwwAmah (SriyA: DAr al-Rashd, 1.
, 347, 374.
https://share.
google/9EDrgWwCZX93mn2Nr.
Syamsudin and Sigit Budiyanto / Authenticity of The Hadith of The Sultan of Allah's Shadow on Earth and Its Popularity in Muslim Political History generally acceptabl.
, although some of his narrations contain wahm .
He is categorized within the sixth abaqah.
Overall, the isnAd of the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars through Ab Bakrah is relatively stronger than that of Ibn Umar, as most of its narrators are adq or maqbl, though corroboration from other chains remains necessary.
By contrast, the Ibn Umar route is weaker due to Sad ibn SinAnAos frequent errors.
Nevertheless, when both transmission lines corroborate with each other, the uadth can be elevated from saf to uasan li-ghayrih, since its weaknesses are not severe.
Hence, scholarsAo classification of this uadth as uasan li-ghayrih is methodologically justified.
Doctrinally, it emphasizes that rulership is a divine trust bound by justice and public welfare, not a means of absolute or sacred Summary Table of Disputed Transmitters (Mukhtalaf f.
in the IsnAd of the adth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars Chain of Ab Bakrah Disputed No.
Transmitter abaqah ScholarsAo Evaluation Remarks (Mukhtalaf f.
ZiyAd ibn Kusayb Maqbl Ie acceptable if corroborated His status is not as strong as thiqah.
his reports require supporting evidence .
hAhid or mutAbaa.
ThAbit al-AnAr A grammarian from Basra.
, but Sad ibn Aws ibn (Ab Zay.
prone to many awhAm .
acknowledged for his honesty but susceptible to transmission Chain of Ibn Umar Disputed No.
Transmitter abaqah ScholarsAo Evaluation Remarks adq .
, but Represents the main weakness in the frequently mistaken chain of Ibn Umar, thereby rendering .
the isnAd comparatively weaker.
(Mukhtalaf f.
Sad ibn SinAn Ibid.
, p.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Considering the quality of the transmitters, the isnAd of the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars through Ab Bakrah is relatively stronger, as most narrators are adq or maqbl, while the Ibn Umar chain is weaker due to Sad ibn SinAnAos frequent errors.
When both chains corroborate each other, the uadth may be elevated to the status of uasan li-ghayrih.
However, the significant chronological gaps among transmitters in the third, sixth, and ninth abaqAt suggest a low probability of direct encounter .
iqA), thereby affecting its continuity.
Hence, the hadithAos reliability depends not only on the narrator's credibility but also on chronological coherence, which necessitates corroboration from additional chains to affirm its validity.
From the Sh perspective, the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars is not understood merely as political legitimation in the manner of the Sunn tradition but is closely tied to the doctrine of imAmah.
Sunns emphasize this uadth as a symbol of legitimizing rulers in maintaining social order and the implementation of the sharah, whereas the Shah reject such generalization, asserting that only the infallible ImAm .
l-imAm al-ma.
or his legitimate representative can be properly described as the Aushadow of GodAy on earth.
Since the earliest period of Islam, the Shah have upheld the view that Al ibn Ab AlibAos leadership was divinely appointed by the Prophet during the events of Dawat dhu AolAshra and Ghadr Khumm, thereby affirming that imAmah is divinely ordained rather than a product of political consensus.
Moreover, the metaphorical interpretation of AushadowAy within Sh discourse extends beyond the political symbolism to the theological meaning, representing the ImAm as a luminous guide for the Narratives regarding the absence of the ImamAos physical shadow are thus understood as an affirmation of their exalted spiritual status rather than literal descriptions.
51 In contemporary Sh thought.
Imam Khomeini reinterprets the Aushadow of GodAy motif as a foundation for legitimizing the concept of wilAyat al-faqh in the era of occultation .
, whereby the jurist .
acts as the rightful representative of the ImAm al-ZamAn, exercising both spiritual and political authority.
This reinterpretation marks a fundamental departure from the Sunn doctrine of the khilAfah, emphasizing divine guardianship over communal consensus.
Rizvi.
Shiism.
Imamate and Wilayat (Toronto: Al-MaArif Books, 1.
, 7Ae8, 13Ae14, https://najaf.
org/books/pdf/239.
pdf?utm_source.
51 M.
Kohantorabi.
AuValidating of Belief in Luminous Bodies of Impeccable Imams in Narrative Sources of Farqayn (Shia and Sunn.
: A Case StudyAiBelief in the Absence of Shadow,Ay Hadith Studies and Researches 1, no.
: 169Ae202, https://doi.
org/10.
22034/HSR.
52 Z.
Azhar.
AuLeadership in Modern Sh Thought: Examining the Theory of Imam Khomeini,Ay Australian Journal of Islamic Studies 8, no.
: 55Ae75, https://ajis.
au/index.
php/ajis/article/download/533/247/3119?utm_source.
Syamsudin and Sigit Budiyanto / Authenticity of The Hadith of The Sultan of Allah's Shadow on Earth and Its Popularity in Muslim Political History Political Implications in History Normatively, the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars portrays the just ruler as the Aushadow of God on earth,Ay whose justice sustains social and political order.
Historically, however, this uadth evolved from a moral axiom into an instrument of political legitimation, employed by both just and authoritarian During the Umayyad dynasty, the consultative nature of the caliphate transformed into a hereditary monarchy when MuAwiyah appointed Yazd as his successor,53 while the Abbasids consolidated their authority through the doctrine of divine representation and strategic patronage of the ulamA.
54 Similar patterns appeared in the Malay-Indonesian archipelago, where local sultans, together with the Wali Songo, integrated Islam into indigenous traditionsAia legacy later institutionalized by Nahdlatul Ulama through the concept of Islam Nusantara.
55 Thus, across historical and political contexts, both virtuous and oppressive rulers have repeatedly invoked this uadth to justify their authority.
In Sh political thought, however, the legitimacy of authority is not determined merely by moral claims as implied in the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars but must instead be rooted in the twin principles of imAmah and adl.
An unjust ruler is considered to have forfeited all legitimacy, and obedience to such a ruler is even deemed impermissible.
This principle is exemplified by the stance of ImAm usayn, who refused to pledge allegiance .
to Yazd and instead chose to struggle for amr bi Aol-marf wa nahy an al-munkar, thereby transforming resistance against tyranny into a religious 56 This underscores that Sh political doctrine not only legitimizes but also sanctifies resistance to unjust regimes.
From a historical perspective, the uadth primarily functions as a moral framework for righteous governance.
By principle, the guarantee of justice applies exclusively to the four al-khulafA alrAshidn, whereas subsequent rulers did not inherit this divine assurance, resulting in variations between just and unjust leadership.
Therefore, the theoretical implication that may be drawn is that legitimation based on this uadth is only valid when two conditions are fulfilled simultaneously: the ruler must be just, and rebellion must be directed against that just ruler.
If either condition is absent, then invoking this uadth as an absolute source of political legitimation becomes untenable.
53 R.
Doan.
AuAnalysing the Institution of Caliphate in the Context of Political Islamists,Ay International Journal of Islamic Thought 15 .
: 116Ae122, https://doi.
org/10.
24035/ijit.
54 Firdaus Sudirman et al.
AuIslamic Political Theory During the Abbasid Government and Its Implications Toward Education,Ay BIS-HSS 2020 Conference Proceedings .
: 1Ae12, https://doi.
org/10.
4108/eai.
18-11-2020.
55 H.
Kats.
AuThe Islam Nusantara Movement in Indonesia,Ay in Islamic Thought in Southeast Asia (Leiden: Brill, 2.
, 111Ae 118, https://doi.
org/10.
1163/9789004435544_008.
56 Muusin Kadivar.
An Analysis of Shiite Political Thought (Amman: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2.
lkjhg, 20Ae24, https://share.
google/unaNLh6NBsQ2QZ43j.
Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Conclusion This study concludes that the uadth al-sulAn eillullAh f al-ars attains the status of uasan li-ghayrih through corroborative transmission chains, with its meaning harmonized with QurAnic principles of justice .
dAla.
and consultation .
hrA).
Historically, its application from the Umayyad and Abbasid periods to the Malay-Indonesian sultanates illustrates how the uadth served as a theological and political instrument for legitimizing rule.
Theoretically, this research demonstrates that political uadths function not merely as normative-religious texts but as discursive frameworks for constructing and critiquing political authority.
Future studies are encouraged to employ comparative and hermeneutical methodologies to further contextualize the relevance of such uadths in both classical Islamic governance and contemporary political thought.
References