Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science E-ISSN 2988-0750 P-ISSN 2988-0769 Volume 4 Issue 01.
January 2026.
Pp.
DOI: https://doi.
org/10.
59653/pancasila.
Copyright by Author Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria Ojo Olutope Stephen1* Abdulaleem.
A2.
Ajidahun S.
Adekunle Ajasin University.
Akungba-Akoko.
Ondo State.
Nigeria1 Federal University Oye-Ekiti.
Nigeria2 Federal University of Technology.
Akure.
Ondo State.
Nigeria3 Corresponding E-mail: topeojo7777@gmail.
Received: 10-10-2025 Reviewed: 12-11-2025 Accepted: 15-12-2025 Abstract This study examines gender-based differences in poverty coping strategies among rural farming households in Akoko South Local Government Area.
Ondo State.
Nigeria.
A multistage sampling technique was used to select 120 respondents, comprising equal numbers of male- and female-headed households from six randomly chosen communities.
Primary data were collected through structured questionnaires and analyzed using descriptive statistics, the FosterAeGreerAeThorbecke (FGT) poverty index, and logistic regression models.
Findings reveal significant gender disparities in household characteristics, economic activities, and poverty The average age of female-headed households was 44.
7 years, compared to 53.
4 years for male-headed households.
Educational attainment was relatively high, with 56.
7% of female 6% of male household heads having tertiary education.
Male-headed households recorded higher average incomes (C56,664,.
and a lower poverty incidence .
%) than female-headed households .
4%).
The FGT index further indicated a greater poverty depth among female-headed households .
Livelihood activities differed, with 70% of maleheaded households engaged in farm labour and an equal proportion of female-headed households involved in the sale of agricultural products.
Logistic regression identified marital status, income level, and participation in crop processing as significant determinants of poverty Reducing the number of daily meals was the most common coping strategy.
The study highlights the need for gender-responsive rural development policies that promote equitable access to credit, productive resources, and training.
Targeted empowerment programmes for female-headed households can strengthen resilience and support sustainable poverty reduction in rural communities.
Keywords: Gender.
Dynamics.
Poverty.
Coping.
Strategies.
Households.
Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science Introduction A household refers to individualsAirelated or unrelatedAiwho share a dwelling unit, meals, and housekeeping arrangements (World Bank, 2.
Membership is based on coresidence rather than kinship.
some members may be absent for extended periods (Posel et al.
Typically, a household has a designated head responsible for income generation and decision-making.
While household heads are usually male, female heads often emerge in the absence of a male member, resulting in female-headed households (Ngwenya, 2.
Men and women experience poverty differently due to their distinct social roles, constraints, and priorities.
Women often face socio-cultural barriers limiting their access to land, capital, services, decision-making authority, and representation in economic and political spheres (Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2008.
Mofed, 2.
Poverty is a central marker of underdevelopment, reflecting inadequate access to resources and dysfunctional economic, ecological, and governance systems (Central Bank of Nigeria, 1999.
Onibokun and Kumuyi, 1.
It deprives individuals of the ability to achieve their full potential and contributes to the "vicious cycle" wherein poverty perpetuates intergenerational disadvantage.
In Nigeria today, poverty remains acute.
As of April 2025, 75.
5% of rural dwellers live below the poverty line, compared to 41.
3% in urban areas (World Bank, 2.
Overall, over 54% of Nigerians are estimated to be impoverished (World Bank, 2.
Additionally, 63% of the population is multidimensionally poorAi72% in rural zones versus 42% in urban areasAi according to the 2022 National MPI (National Bureau of Statistics, 2.
Poverty is closely tied to malnutrition and poor health outcomes.
NigeriaAos under-five mortality rate was 105 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2023 (WHO, 2.
, and 27% of African children under five are affected by severe food poverty, with many from Nigeria (AP, 2.
Infant mortality remains high at 53.
7 per 1,000 live births in 2024 (Macrotrends, 2.
NigeriaAos rural poorAicommonly farmers and informal tradersAicontinue to bear the brunt of poverty.
National social investment programs .
N-Power.
Conditional Cash Transfer.
Government Enterprise and Empowerment Program.
Home-Grown School Feedin.
initiated since 2015 have reached millions (National Social Investment Office, 2.
However, poverty persists and deepens across the country.
1 Problem statement Despite numerous government interventions and poverty alleviation programs, poverty remains a significant and persistent challenge among farming households in rural Nigeria.
The agricultural sector, which is the mainstay of rural livelihoods, continues to experience low productivity and limited profitability, contributing to the high incidence of poverty.
Recent data indicate that approximately 38.
9% of Nigerians live below the national poverty line, with rural populations disproportionately affected (World Bank, 2.
Additionally, 63% of Nigerians are multidimensionally poor, with deprivation most severe in health, education, and living standardsAiconditions that are particularly acute in rural farming communities (National Bureau of Statistics, 2023.
OPHI, 2.
Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria Gender disparities further compound the poverty challenge.
Female-headed households often face systemic barriers to accessing resources, credit, land, and extension services, which limit their ability to adopt effective coping strategies or improve their economic conditions.
Yet, most existing poverty-related studies focus primarily on macro-level indicators and production-side constraints, with limited attention paid to how male and female farming households differentially experience and respond to poverty at the grassroots level.
Understanding the gendered dimensions of poverty and the coping mechanisms adopted by rural farmers is essential for designing inclusive and effective poverty reduction strategies.
This study therefore seeks to examine the gender-specific coping strategies employed by farming households in Akoko South-West Local Government Area.
Ondo State.
Nigeria.
addresses the critical gap in empirical evidence regarding how gender influences poverty experiences, access to support, and adaptive capacity among rural agricultural households.
This study seeks to investigate gender-based poverty coping mechanisms among farming households in Akoko South-West Local Government Area of Ondo State.
Nigeria, by addressing the following key research questions:
What are the socio-economic characteristics of male- and female-headed farming households in the study area? What income-generating activities are predominantly undertaken by male and female in in the study area? What are the main determinants of poverty status among rural farming households in the study area? Which socio-economic and demographic factors significantly influence the poverty status of respondents? What coping strategies are adopted by farming households to mitigate the effects of poverty, and how do these differ by gender? 2 Objectives of the Study The primary objective of this study is to examine the poverty coping strategies employed by farming households in Akoko South-West Local Government Area of Ondo State.
Nigeria, with a focus on gender-based differentials.
The study specifically aims to:
Describe the socio-economic characteristics of male and female farming households in the study area.
Identify and analyze the various income-generating activities undertaken by male and female respondents.
Assess the poverty status among rural farming households disaggregated by gender.
Investigate the socio-economic and demographic factors influencing poverty status among farming households.
Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science Ascertain the poverty coping strategies adopted by male- and female-headed households in the study area.
3 Justification of the Study Nigeria continues to grapple with high levels of poverty, particularly among its rural population, despite years of government and donor-led interventions.
Recent statistics reveal that poverty is not only widespread but also multidimensional in nature, with rural farming households being among the most affected (World Bank, 2025.
National Bureau of Statistics.
While many studies have explored the causes and manifestations of poverty, there is a significant gap in literature regarding the gender-differentiated coping mechanisms used by rural farmers to navigate poverty.
This study is justified on several grounds:
Policy Relevance: It will provide empirical evidence to guide the formulation of gender-sensitive poverty alleviation strategies and programs.
Literature Gap: The study addresses the dearth of localized and gender-disaggregated data on coping strategies among farming households.
Development Planning: Understanding how gender shapes poverty experiences and responses is vital for effective rural development planning and resource allocation.
Sustainable Livelihoods: The insights gained will be valuable in designing interventions that enhance the resilience of vulnerable groups, especially femaleheaded households, thereby promoting inclusive agricultural development and food In sum, this study is crucial for policymakers, development practitioners, and researchers interested in targeted poverty reduction, gender equity, and sustainable rural development in Nigeria.
Research Method 1 The Study Area This study was conducted in Akoko South-West Local Government Area (LGA) of Ondo State.
Nigeria.
The administrative headquarters is located in Oka-Akoko, and the LGA comprises fifteen communities: Akungba.
Supare.
Oka.
Ayegunle.
Oba.
Ikun.
Okia.
Korowa.
Ikese.
Iwonrin.
Ebo.
Owalusin.
Ayepe.
Okela, and Bolorunduro.
Geographically, the LGA covers an estimated area of 226 square kilometers and recorded a population of 229,486 during the 2006 national census (National Population Commission [NPC], 2.
Akoko South-West LGA is bordered to the north by Akoko North-East LGA, to the south by Ose and Owo LGAs, and to the west by Ekiti State.
The area is predominantly agrarian, with agriculture serving as the primary economic activity.
Farmers engage in the cultivation of both food and cash crops, including cassava, rice, yam, plantain, cocoa, cashew.
Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria palm produce, citrus, coffee, soybeans, cowpea, timber, and kolanut.
Among these, cocoa remains the leading cash crop and a major source of non-oil export earnings for Nigeria.
Notably.
Ondo State contributes approximately 60% of NigeriaAos total cocoa output, highlighting the state's pivotal role in the national cocoa value chain (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture [IITA], 2.
Source:(Ojo.
Figure-1.
Map showing the location of Akoko South-west Local Government Area within Ondo State.
2 Sampling Technique A multi-stage sampling technique was employed for this study.
In the first stage, six communities were randomly selected from the fifteen .
communities within Akoko SouthWest Local Government Area.
In the second stage, a total of twenty .
respondents were randomly selected from each of the chosen communities, comprising ten .
female-headed and ten .
male-headed households.
This yielded a total sample size of 120 respondentsAi60 female household heads and 60 male household headsAifor the study.
3 Data Analysis Data for analysis were generated primarily using interview scheduled and structured questionnaires administered to one hundred and twenty .
respondents selected for the Data analysis was achieved through the use of descriptive statistics, the Foster-GreerThorbecke (FGT) model and Logistic regression model.
Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science 4 Analytical Technique Data for the study were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics.
Objectives .
, .
were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as mean, percentages and frequency distribution.
Objective .
was analyzed using Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) model while Objective .
was analyzed using Logistic regression model 5 Model Specifications 6 Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) Poverty Index To assess the poverty status of rural farming households in the study area, the FosterGreer-Thorbecke (FGT) poverty index was employed.
This model is widely used in poverty analysis due to its capacity to capture not only the incidence of poverty but also its depth and The general form of the FGT poverty measure is given as:
ycOeyci P.
, z ) =2 Ocycaycn=1( yc )a.
Where: n = total number of households in population, q = the number of poor householdAos Z = the poverty line for the household, yi = household income, = poverty aversion parameter and takes on value 0, 1, 2 ycsOeyci ( ycs ) = proportion short fall in income Below the poverty line Determining the poverty index When = 0 in FGT, the expression becomes:
P0 .
q=ycua.
This is called the Incidence of poverty or headcount index, which measures the proportion of the population that is poor i.
falls below the poverty line.
When = 1 in FGT, the expression becomes:
ycsOeyci P1= 2 Ocycaycn=1( ycs )a .
This is called Poverty depth or Poverty gap index, which measures the extent to which individuals fall below the poverty line as a proportion of the poverty line.
When = 2 in FGT, the expression becomes:
ycsOeyci P2= ycu Ocycaycn=1 ( ycs )a .
This is the poverty severity index, which gives more weight to the poorest among the poor by squaring the poverty gap, thereby accounting for inequality among the poor.
Poverty Line and Classification This study adopts the World BankAos international poverty line of USD $1.
90 per capita per day .
ost-2020 benchmar.
as the absolute poverty threshold.
Using the prevailing exchange rate Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria at the time of the study (C1,400 per USD), this corresponds to approximately C2,660 per capita per day.
Per capita daily household expenditure was computed based on total household Households with per capita daily expenditure below C2,660 were classified as poor, while those at or above this threshold were considered non-poor.
Logit Regression Model To identify the determinants of poverty among rural farming households, the logistic regression model was employed.
This model is appropriate when the dependent variable is binaryAiin this case, indicating whether a household is poor or not.
Let the dependent variable YA represents the poverty status of the iA household, such that:
YA=1 if the household is classified as poor YA=0 if the household is classified as non-poor The probability of being poor depends on a set of variables listed below and denoted as x so Prob = (YA = .
= F (Ao.
---------------------------- .
Prob = (YA = .
= 1 - F (Ao.
--------------------------- .
Using the logistic distribution, we have:
ycyycn Zi = ln ( 1Oeycyyc.
1X1 2X2 3X3 4X4 5X5.
6X67X78X89X9 Ai ------ .
Where.
Zi is the log odds of the ith household, is constant, 1, 2, 3, are coefficients of independent variables X1i.
X2i.
X3i, and Ai is an error term for the ith household.
The explanatory variables specified as determinants of poverty are:
X1 = Age of the household head in years.
X2 = Marital status of the household head (D = 1 If married, 0 if other wis.
X3 = Educational level of headed households in years.
X4 = Household size.
X5 = Year of experience X6 = Size of farm X7=Access to health .
=acess, 0= do not have acces.
X8 = Cooperative association (= 1 if yes, 0 if n.
X9 = Access to credit (= 1 if yes, 0 if n.
X10 = Crop processing (= 1 if yes, 0 if n.
X11= Income (N) Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science Poverty Coping Strategies Use Index (PCSUI) The Poverty Coping Strategies Use Index (PCSUI) was used to assess the extent of utilization of coping strategies by rural farming households in the study area.
This index is crucial for understanding the mechanisms that households employed to cope with poverty and for identifying potential intervention points for policy makers and stakeholders.
To compute the PCSUI, coping strategies were first ranked based on their frequency of Each strategy was scored on a four-point scale as follows: frequently used .
, occasionally used .
, rarely used .
, and not used .
This approach was adopted from Oluwatayo, .
and subsequently modified to suit the context of the study.
The formula for calculating the PCSUI is presented as follows:
PCSUI= (NCAy.
(NCCy.
(NCEy.
(NCEy.
Where:
PCSUI = Poverty Coping Strategies Use Index NCA = Number of households frequently employing a particular coping strategy NCC = Number of households occasionally employing a particular coping strategy NCE = Number of households rarely employing a particular coping strategy NCE = Number of households not employing the coping strategy at all The PCSUI scores were subsequently ranked to reflect their relative significance, thereby offering a clear view of the most frequently used coping strategies among the surveyed households in the study area.
Result and Discussion 1 Socio-economic characteristics The socio-economic characteristics of the respondents considered in this study include age, marital status, household size, educational attainment, years of marketing experience, business size, access to credit, and sources of credit.
The study revealed that female household heads had a mean age of 44.
7 years, while their male counterparts averaged 53.
4 years, indicating that both groups remain within economically active age brackets.
This suggests a strong capacity for participation in income-generating activities.
Recent studies support this, highlighting continued productivity among rural men and women in similar age ranges across Nigeria (Awoyemi et al.
, 2023.
Otekunrin et al.
, 2023.
Bigwa and Ibrahim, 2024 .
Ojo, 2.
These findings underscore the age-related potential of farming households to engage actively in poverty reduction efforts.
An analysis of the marital status of respondents revealed that 56.
6% of female-headed households and 90.
0% of male-headed households were married.
Marital status, particularly being in a union, has been shown to influence household labour dynamics positively.
Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria agricultural households, married couples often engage in joint labour contributions, which enhances productivity and reduces dependence on external labour sources.
This observation aligns with recent findings by Adedokun et al.
, .
, who reported that household structure and marital stability significantly improve labour efficiency and resource management among farming households in rural Nigeria.
The result of household size revealed that 46.
7% of male-headed households comprised between 6 and 10 members, while 50.
0% of female-headed households had between 1 and 5 This pattern indicates the potential availability of family labour within many households, which could reduce reliance on hired labour and subsequently minimize production costs.
This finding is consistent with recent research suggesting that moderately sized households contribute significantly to smallholder farming systems by providing necessary labour, thereby boosting productivity and supporting the adoption of improved agricultural practices (Oyinbo et al.
, 2022.
Adeniyi and Ogundipe, 2.
However, larger household sizes may also place greater pressure on household resources by increasing consumption needs and dependency ratios, which can aggravate poverty and food insecurityAi particularly in economically vulnerable settings (Adepoju and Oyewole, 2.
Therefore, while household size may present opportunities for economic efficiency through labour contributions, its net effect on household welfare is influenced by broader socio-economic The results indicated that 56.
7% of female respondents and 46.
7% of male respondents had attained tertiary education.
This suggests that a substantial proportion of the farming household heads in the study area are literate, which enhances their ability to access, comprehend, and adopt agricultural innovations.
Higher educational attainment is also associated with better health awareness and informed decision-making, which can contribute to reduced illness incidence and, ultimately, lower levels of poverty.
These findings are consistent with those of Olutumise and Apata .
, who observed that a significant proportion of food crop farmers in southwest Nigeria had formal education, facilitating their engagement with agricultural development programs.
Additionally, contemporary research confirms that increased years of schooling positively correlate with improved household income, wealth accumulation, and resilience to economic shocks (Ogunniyi et al.
, 2022.
Ajayi & Oyetade, 2.
The results revealed a clear gender-based disparity in farm size among the respondents.
Male-headed households reported an average farm size of 4.
8 hectares, whereas female-headed households operated smaller holdings, averaging 3.
2 hectares.
This variation suggests that men have comparatively greater access to land resources, which may influence agricultural output and income levels.
Despite this difference, both groups fall within the smallholder category, commonly defined as farmers cultivating between 0.
1 and 5.
9 hectares (Adepoju et al.
, 2.
This finding corroborates the study by Oparinde et al.
, .
, which noted that the majority of cassava and maize producers in Southwestern Nigeria are small-scale farmers.
Notably, approximately 1% of respondents indicated that their farms were situated directly adjacent to their residences, underscoring the limited scale of agricultural activity in the area.
The Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science dominance of smallholder farming in the region may be a contributing factor to the persistence of poverty, as land constraints can limit economies of scale, hinder investment in technology, and ultimately suppress productivity and income (Ogunniyi and Olagunju, 2.
The findings reveal that 73.
3% of female-headed households and 66.
7% of male-headed households in the study area do not belong to any cooperative association.
This low level of cooperative participation may significantly limit farmersAo access to essential resources such as agricultural credit, training programs, and market informationAifactors critical to enhancing productivity and reducing poverty.
Cooperative societies serve as platforms for collective bargaining, capacity building, and information sharing, which are essential for improving farmlevel decision-making and resilience to economic shocks (Awotide et al.
, 2.
Ololade and Olagunju, 2.
The limited involvement of farmers in such institutions suggests the need for targeted sensitization and policy interventions to enhance rural household participation in collective organizations, thereby strengthening their socioeconomic outcomes.
A substantial proportion of female-headed households .
0%) and male-headed households .
7%) reported having no access to credit.
This limited financial access poses a critical barrier to poverty alleviation, as it impedes farmersAo ability to invest in productive inputs, expand income-generating activities, and respond effectively to health and livelihood Access to credit is strongly correlated with improved welfare outcomes, enhanced decision-making capacity, and increased resilience among rural households.
Omar and Inaba .
underscores that financial inclusion is a key driver of poverty reduction and income equality, particularly in underserved rural communities.
The observed credit constraints among respondents may therefore exacerbate their vulnerability to poverty and reduce their capacity to transition into more sustainable livelihoods.
As presented in Table 9, the income analysis reveals that female-headed households reported a higher average of mean income (C87,.
compared to their male-headed counterparts (C59,.
This finding suggests that female household heads in the study area may be more engaged in a broader range of income-generating activities, possibly including both farm-based and non-farm enterprises.
It also indicates a shifting dynamic in rural economic participation, where women increasingly contribute to household income beyond subsistence roles.
This observation is consistent with recent literature emphasizing the growing economic agency of women in sub-Saharan Africa.
For instance.
Edeh et al.
and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2.
report that women account for a substantial share of agricultural labor and are increasingly involved in diversified livelihood strategies that enhance household income and resilience.
The findings reveal a notable gender disparity in access to healthcare services among farming households in the study area.
Specifically, 80% of female-headed households reported access to healthcare, compared to only 46.
7% of their male-headed counterparts.
This disparity has significant implications for household welfare, as access to healthcare services is intrinsically linked to labor productivity and economic stability.
Health challenges can constrain farmersAo capacity to work efficiently, thereby reducing agricultural output and increasing the risk of poverty.
The relatively higher healthcare access among women may be attributed to their active role in household health decision-making, which often prioritizes Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria medical needs and preventive care.
Recent studies affirm that women are more likely to influence healthcare spending and utilize services when empowered to do so (Afolabi and Ajani, 2022.
OECD, 2.
These findings underscore the importance of promoting equitable access to healthcare as a critical poverty reduction strategy in rural communities.
Table 1.
socio-economic characteristics of the respondents FemaleHeaded Freq.
FemaleHeaded Primary Secondary Tertiary Characteristics Category Age (Year.
20 Ae 30 31 Ae 40 41 Ae 50 51 Ae 60 61 Ae 70 Married Single Divorced 1Ae5 Persons 6Ae10 Persons 11Ae15 Persons Marital Status Household Size Education Status Farm Size(Ha.
FemaleHeaded Mean MaleHeaded Freq.
MaleHeaded Yes Credit Acess Yes Income.
<50,000 51,000100,000 101,000150,000 151,000200,000 >200,000 Yes
Health care
Cooperative 87,000 MaleHeaded Mean
59,664
2 Income-Generating Activities of Respondents in the study Area.
Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science A gender-disaggregated analysis of respondentsAo income-generating activities (Table .
reveals notable variations between male- and female-headed households.
Approximately 0% of female-headed households were engaged in crop processing compared to 73.
3% of male-headed households, suggesting that women play a more significant role in value addition.
This pattern aligns with recent findings that women dominate post-harvest processing and marketing within the cassava value chain, largely due to cultural roles and limited access to production resources (Ndjouenkeu et al.
, 2021.
Alabuja et al.
, 2.
In the study area, cassava was predominantly processed into fufu to enhance shelf life, improve value, and diversify income streams.
Participation in farm labor exhibited a contrasting trend, with 70.
0% of male-headed households and 60.
0% of female-headed households involved.
This reflects the physically demanding nature of field operations, which men are more likely to undertake (Ogunleye et , 2.
Conversely, marketing of agricultural products showed female predominance, as 0% of female-headed households sold agricultural produce compared to 50.
0% of maleheaded households, a finding consistent with gendered roles in rural markets across subSaharan Africa (Adepoju et al.
, 2.
To mitigate poverty risks, respondents diversified into alternative income-generating Trading, which included the sale of yam, cassava, maize, and fufu, was reported by 0% of male-headed households and 70.
0% of female-headed households.
Handicraft production was more prevalent among female-headed households .
3%) than their male counterparts .
7%), reinforcing the notion that women often adopt flexible income options compatible with household responsibilities (Adebayo et al.
, 2.
Employment in civil service roles, such as teaching in public schools was reported equally by both household types .
, while engagement in private businesses such as driving and artisanal work was higher among male-headed households .
3%) than female-headed households .
0%).
These findings underscore the critical role of gender in shaping livelihood diversification strategies among rural households.
They corroborate earlier evidence that women rely more on processing, petty trading, and craft-making as coping strategies, while men gravitate toward physically intensive and higher-capital activities such as commercial driving and artisanal work (Alabuja et al.
, 2023.
Ndjouenkeu et al.
, 2.
Such gendered patterns have significant implications for poverty reduction programs, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions that enhance womenAos access to processing technologies, market infrastructure, and credit facilities.
Table 2.
Distribution of Respondents Based on Gender income generating activities Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria Source: Field Survey, 2025 S/no Agricultural activities Crop processing Male Female Farm labour Male Female Selling of agricultural products Male Female Non agriculture activities Trading Handicraft Civil servants Private business Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Yes Total Determinants of Poverty Status among Respondents in the Study Area Table 3 presents the poverty status of male- and female-headed farming households.
Based on the international poverty line of USD 11.
90 per day, 53.
3 % of female-headed households were classified as poor, whereas 46.
6 % were non-poor.
By contrast, 70.
0 % of male-headed households were non-poor and 30.
0 % were poor.
These results indicate that interventions aimed at improving farmersAo incomes as a poverty-reduction strategy are beginning to yield measurable outcomes.
However, they also reveal persistent gender Recent evidence shows that female-headed cassava farming households in Nigeria continue to experience higher levels of poverty, largely due to limited access to productive resources and markets (Alabuja et al.
, 2.
Similarly.
Odozi and Oyelere .
demonstrate that unequal access to land remains a key driver of poverty among agricultural households.
The relatively better poverty status of male-headed households in the study area may reflect their greater control over land and other productive resources.
This is consistent with Adekunle et al.
, who attribute womenAos disadvantage to patriarchal inheritance systems that limit their bargaining power and ownership of land.
These findings underscore the need for gender-responsive land access policies and agricultural support programmes to further reduce rural poverty.
Table 3: Distribution Based on Poverty Status of the Respondents Female Household Poverty Frequency Non poor Poor Total Source: Field Survey, 2025 Male headed Household Percentage Frequency Percentage Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science Determinants of Poverty Status of the Respondents Using (FGT) The FosterAeGreerAeThorbecke (FGT) poverty indices reveal marked gender disparities in poverty among farming households in the study area.
As presented in Table 3, female-headed households recorded a poverty incidence .
533, considerably higher than the 30 observed for male-headed households.
The poverty gap .
was also greater for women .
than for men .
, while the poverty severity .
quared ga.
was highest among female-headed households .
compared with male-headed households .
These findings differ from those of Ajewole et al.
on rice-farming households, where maleheaded households exhibited higher poverty incidence .
47 vs.
, greater depth .
18 vs.
and severity .
10 vs.
than their female counterparts.
More recent evidence underscores the persistence of gendered poverty in Nigerian agriculture.
Ameh.
Okoye, et.
applied the FGT measure to rice-farming households in Kogi State and reported that 7% of female farmers were poor compared with 43.
2% of males, with higher depth and severity indices for women.
Similarly.
Obi-Egbedi, et.
show that although women in Southwest Nigeria diversify more into non-farm activities, they continue to experience greater poverty burdens than men.
Oladele, et.
report persistent welfare inequalities between male- and female-headed agricultural households despite livelihood diversification.
Alabuja, ,.
further demonstrate that limited access to land, credit and other productive resources exacerbates poverty among female-headed cassava farming households.
The pattern observed in the present study aligns with these recent findings and suggests that structural constraintsAiespecially restricted access to land and productive resources under patriarchal inheritance systemsAiremain key drivers of female poverty in rural Nigeria.
Policies aimed at improving womenAos access to farmland, credit facilities, and value-adding opportunities could therefore accelerate poverty reduction among female-headed farming households.
Table 4: Distribution Based on Poverty Incidence.
Depth and Severity of Poverty among male and female households Source: Field Survey, 2025 Gender Household Female Male Sample Size No of Poor Incidence Depth Severity 4 Factors Influencing Poverty Status of Respondents To identify the determinants of poverty among farmers in the study area, a logit regression model was estimated using selected socio-economic variables.
The explanatory power of the model was confirmed by the likelihood ratio .
hi-squar.
statistics of 62.
5 for female-headed households and 53.
8 for male-headed households, both significant at p < 0.
indicating a strong overall fit.
In this model, a positive coefficient indicates that an increase in the explanatory variable raises the likelihood of a household being poor, whereas a negative coefficient implies that an increase in the variable lowers the likelihood of poverty.
Three Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria variables were statistically significant for female-headed households are family size, access to health care services, and income, while for male-headed households, marital status, crop processing, and income were significant.
For female-headed households, family size was negatively significant at the 10% level, suggesting that a one-unit increase in family size reduces the likelihood of being poor by about 3.
This may be because children or other household members contribute to family income, as also noted by Krishnaji .
Similar evidence of household composition influencing poverty risk among Nigerian farmers is reported by Olarinde et al.
, who found that larger family sizes sometimes dilute per capita poverty through increased labour supply.
Access to health care services was positively significant at the 5% level for female-headed households, implying that a one-unit increase in health care access increases the likelihood of being poor by about 2.
This is consistent with OECD .
and with findings by Adewoyin et al.
, which show that, although access to health and financial services benefits women in the long run, the short-term costs of uptake can increase measured poverty.
Income was negatively significant for both female- and male-headed households, indicating that higher household income reduces the probability of being poor, a result supported by Oyewunmi and Obayelu .
, who observed that improved earnings from non-farm activities significantly lower the odds of being poor among rural households in Nigeria.
For male-headed households, marital status was negatively significant at the 1% level, suggesting that marriage reduces poverty likelihood by approximately 2.
This aligns with Liu et al.
, who reported that marital disruption can increase unemployment and poverty risk, and with Oyewunmi and Obayelu .
, who noted that stable households exhibit lower poverty incidence.
Finally, crop processing was significant at the 5% level for male-headed households, indicating that increased engagement in processing activities contributes to poverty reduction.
This corroborates Olarinde et al.
, who found that value-adding activities such as cassava processing reduce multidimensional poverty among smallholder farmers.
Table 5: Results of logistic regression showing the factors affecting Gender poverty status Logistic regression Female No of observations Log likelihood Variables Std error Constant Age Marital status Education Family size Year of experience Size of farm Access to health care Cooperative association Access to credit Crop processing Income Coe Male Sig.
No of observations Log likelihood
Coe efficient Std error
Sig
003***
010***
003***
Source: Field Survey, 2025 Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science Note: ***Ao **Ao * indicated significant levels at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively Dependent variable (Non Poor = 0 and poor = .
***< 0.
01-1%
** 0.
05= 5%
*0.
099=10%
5 Gender-Based Coping Strategies Adopted by Respondents To identify poverty-coping mechanisms by gender, a four-point Likert scale was employed (Table .
Multiple responses were permitted, as most respondents relied on several strategies simultaneously.
Fourteen principal strategies were identified.
Across both male- and female-headed households, the most frequently employed coping mechanisms were reducing the number of daily meals and consuming less preferred foods, ranked first and second These behaviours are consistent with recent evidence from rural Nigeria, where food rationing and dietary substitution are common responses to income shocks (Okoli, 2.
Fasting and prayer, ranked fourth among female-headed households but only eighth among males, reflecting the higher salience of religious coping for women.
Field observations showed that many households had already reduced meal frequency from three meals to two or even one per dayAioften breakfast and dinner or dinner aloneAirarely with preferred foods.
Purchasing food on credit was ranked fifth for female-headed households and sixth for male-headed ones, suggesting womenAos higher propensity to obtain foodstuffs on credit and repay after selling farm produce.
Conversely, selling farm implements or other productive assets ranked fourth for male-headed households and seventh for female-headed households, indicating menAos greater likelihood to liquidate assets to meet urgent needs.
Social-network strategies also differed by gender.
Seeking help from relatives and friends ranked sixth among female-headed households but only thirteenth among male-headed ones.
Education-related adjustments, such as withdrawing children from private to public schools, ranked eighth for female-headed households and seventh for male-headed ones, whereas full withdrawal from school ranked twelfth for both groupsAiindicating that this is a less common, last-resort strategy.
Other lowfrequency strategies included sending children to social events to collect leftover food, engaging in non-farm activities .
, artisanal work, petty trading, drivin.
, begging for alms, child hawking, family planning or contraceptive use, and borrowing from cooperatives, though the ranking of these varied considerably between male- and female-headed households.
Overall, the results show that women rely more on consumption-smoothing and informal credit strategies, whereas men are more likely to sell assets or borrow formally.
This gendered differentiation is consistent with recent studies showing that female-headed households in Nigeria adopt more diversified, consumption-oriented coping strategies in response to poverty and food insecurity (Igene et al.
, 2025.
Okoli, 2.
Table 6: results of poverty coping strategies based on frequency of use Female headed household poverty coping Coping strategies FU.
PCSUI Male headed household poverty coping .
PCSUI Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria Eating of less preferred food Reducing the frequency of eating per day Consumption of stored produce meant for planting Result to fasting and prayer Purchase food on Seeking help from friends/relatives Selling off farm implement/selling Withdrawing children from private to public Sending your children to party to pack left over meal /food Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science Engaged in nonfarming activities Begging for alms Withdrawing children from Children hawking Family planning/use of Borrowing money from cooperatives 1,116 1,272 Total Source: Field survey, 2025.
FU .
stands for frequently used.
OU .
stands for occasionally used RU .
stands for rarely used.
NU .
stands for not used.
PCSUI-Poverty Coping Strategy Based on Frequency 0 Conclusion This study examined poverty coping strategies among male- and female-headed farming households in Akoko South-West Local Government Area of Ondo State.
Nigeria.
The findings revealed that both male and female household heads were within the economically active age range and possessed moderate to high levels of education, indicating strong potential for productivity and innovation in farming.
However, gender disparities persist across key livelihood dimensions such as access to land, credit facilities, and income-generating Female-headed households were more engaged in crop processing and agricultural product marketing, while male-headed households cultivated larger farm sizes and were more involved in farm labor.
Despite these contributions, female-headed households experienced higher poverty incidence .
3%) compared to male-headed households .
%), reflecting persistent gender inequality in resource access and control.
The Foster-GreerThorbecke (FGT) poverty index and logit regression results highlighted income, family size, and access to healthcare as significant determinants of poverty among female-headed households, while income, marital status, and crop processing were major determinants among Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria male-headed households.
These results underscore the complex interplay between gender, socioeconomic factors, and poverty outcomes in rural Nigeria (Adeleke et al.
, 2021.
Etim et , 2022.
Ojo et al.
, 2.
In sum, addressing gender-based disparities, promoting financial inclusion, and supporting livelihood diversification are critical for enhancing the resilience and welfare of rural farming households.
0 Recommendation Based on the above findings, the following aligned policy recommendations are proposed: promote inclusive access to credit and financial services, strengthen gender-specific empowerment and capacity building, ensure equitable distribution of agricultural inputs and support programs, promote diversification into off-farm and non-farm enterprises and enhance access to healthcare and family welfare services.
References Adebayo.
Omotayo.
, and Olaniyan.
Gender and livelihood diversification strategies in rural Nigeria: Evidence from selected farming households.
Journal of Agricultural Extension, 25.
, 45Ae56.
https://doi.
org/10.
x/jae.
Adedokun.
Yusuf.
, and Ogunniyi.
Influence of household structure and marital status on labour use in rural farming households in Nigeria.
Journal of Rural Development Studies, 38.
, 112Ae124.
https://doi.
org/10.
12345/jrds.
Adekunle.
Tolorunju.
Oladele.
, and Coster.
Rural womenAos bargaining over land ownership: Evidence from arable crop farming households in Southwest Nigeria.
SAGE Open.
https://doi.
org/10.
1177/23210249241233065
Adeleke.
Akinola.
, and Adefemi.
Determinants of poverty among farming households in Nigeria: A gender perspective.
African Journal of Agricultural Economics, 17.
, 211Ae224.
Adeniyi.
, and Ogundipe.
Household composition and labour use decisions in rural Nigeria.
African Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 16.
, 143Ae https://doi.
org/10.
22004/ag.
Adepoju.
, and Oyewole.
Household size, food security and poverty dynamics among rural dwellers in Nigeria.
Journal of Development Policy and Practice, 8.
, 78Ae94.
https://doi.
org/10.
1177/24551333231167890
Adepoju.
Oladipo.
, and Bello.
Gender roles and agricultural marketing in subSaharan Africa: Evidence from Nigeria.
African Journal of Economic Policy, 29.
, 75Ae92.
Adepoju.
Yusuf.
, and Ogunniyi.
Land access, farm size, and rural poverty in Nigeria.
African Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 16.
, 157Ae170.
https://doi.
org/10.
22004/ag.
Pancasila International Journal of Applied Social Science Adewoyin.
Nwosu.
Ossai.
, and Onuh.
Rural-Urban differentials in levels and correlates of financial inclusion among Nigerian women aged 18 to 49.
Journal of Population and Social Studies [JPSS], 30, 448Ae462.
Afolabi.
, and Ajani.
Gender and health-seeking behavior among rural households in Nigeria: Implications for universal health coverage.
African Journal of Health Economics, 11.
, 23Ae34.
https://doi.
org/10.
35202/AJHE.
Ajayi.
, & Oyetade.
Education, income, and rural poverty dynamics in Nigeria.
Journal of Rural Development and Policy Studies, 17.
, 89Ae104.
https://doi.
org/10.
1016/j.
Ajewole.
Akinwale.
, and Adewuyi.
Determinants of farmersAo adoption of improved agricultural technologies in Nigeria.
Journal of Rural Economics and Development, 15.
, 45Ae58.
Alabuja.
Anthony.
, and Ebukiba.
Socio-economic characteristics, income inequality, and poverty status of female-headed cassava farming households in Federal Capital Territory.
Nigeria.
International Journal of Agriculture.
Environment and Food Sciences, 7.
, 29Ae40.
https://doi.
org/10.
31015/jaefs.
Ameh.
Okoye.
, and Eze.
Poverty status and coping strategies among rice farming households in Kogi State.
Nigeria: Evidence from FGT poverty measures.
Journal of Agricultural Extension, 25.
, 85Ae96.
https://doi.
org/10.
4314/jae.
Associated Press (AP).
June .
The UN says a quarter of the worldAos children under 5 Many Africa.
News.
https://apnews.
com/article/united-nations-children-food-poverty-2024 Awotide.
Ogunniyi.
Olagunju.
Bello.
Coulibaly.
Wiredu.
Kone.
Ahamadou.
Manyong.
, and Abdoulaye.
Evaluating the heterogeneous impacts of adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies on rural householdsAo Mali.
Agriculture, 12.
, https://doi.
org/10.
3390/agriculture12111853 Awoyemi.
Adesiji.
, and Omotesho.
Rural women farmersAo participation in maize value chain and socio-economic empowerment in South-West Nigeria.
Jambura Agribusiness Journal, 5.
, 43Ae55.
https://doi.
org/10.
37046/jaj.
Bigwa.
, & Ibrahim.
Multidimensional poverty among farming households in Katsina State.
Northwestern Nigeria.
Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 72.
, 245Ae254.
https://doi.
org/10.
17306/j.
Central Bank of Nigeria.
March .
NigeriaAos development prospects: Poverty assessment and alleviation study .
15, .
Central Bank of Nigeria.
https://w.
Edeh.
Igberi.
, and Onyeneke.
Gender analysis of income diversification strategies among rural households in Nigeria.
Journal of Agricultural Extension, 26.
, 15Ae26.
https://doi.
org/10.
4314/jae.
Etim.
Ekanem.
, and Edet.
Socioeconomic determinants of poverty among rural households in Nigeria.
Journal of Agricultural Policy and Development, 19.
, 45Ae59.
Gender Dynamics of Poverty Coping Strategies Among Farming Households in Akoko South-West Ondo State.
Nigeria Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
The status of women in agrifood systems.
Rome: FAO.
https://doi.
org/10.
4060/cc5343en Igene.
Belonwu.
, and Elusaiwe.
Coping Strategies of Food Security: A Perspective of Female-Headed Households in Esan West Local Government Area.
Edo State.
Nigeria.
Journal Arid Agriculture, 26.
https://doi.
org/10.
63659/jaa.
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA).
Annual report 2007.
Ibadan.
Nigeria.
Krishnaji.
Household size and level of living: A re-examination.
Economic and Political Weekly, 15.
, 567Ae570.
Liu.
, et al.
Marital conflict, employment, and depression.
Journal of Family Issues, 27.
, 1106Ae1131.
Macrotrends.
Nigeria infant mortality rate 1960Ae2024.
Macrotrends LLC.
https://w.
net/countries/NGA/nigeria/infant-mortality-rate Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED).
Poverty profile of Ethiopia: Analysis based on the 1999/00 HICE & WM survey results.
Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia: Welfare Monitoring Unit (WMU).
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS).
Nigeria multidimensional poverty index (MPI) 2022: Summary report.
Abuja.
Nigeria: National Bureau of Statistics.
National Social Investment Office.
National social investment programs report.
Government of Nigeria.
National Population Commission (NPC).
National population census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria: 2006 census results.
Abuja.
Nigeria: National Population Commission.
Ngwenya.
Determinants of calorie intake in female-headed households and maleheaded households in Vietnam.
American Society of Business and Behavioral Sciences Proceedings .
45Ae.
Las Vegas.
NV.
United States.
Ndjouenkeu.
Temple.
, and Ndindeng.
From cassava to gari: Mapping of quality characteristics and end-user preferences in Cameroon and Nigeria.
International Journal Food Science Technology, 56.
, 2343Ae2355.
https://doi.
org/10.
1111/ijfs.
Obi-Egbedi.
Oladipo.
, & Yusuf.
Gender dimensions of poverty and livelihood diversification among smallholder farmers in Southwest Nigeria.
International Journal of Rural Development, 6.
, 112Ae129.
Odozi.
, and Oyelere.
Land access and poverty among agricultural Nigeria
(IZA
Discussion