Journal of Applied Engineering and Technological Science
Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

CALORIFIC VALUE OF PALM KERNEL SHELL CHARCOAL (PKSC)
BRIQUETTE AS SOLID FUEL
Hendri Nurdin1*, Waskito2, Fadhilah3, Toto Sugiarto4, Andre Kurniawan5, Yolli Fernanda6,
Rudy Anarta7, Fathi Aulia DZ8
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia1256
Department of Mining Engineering, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia378
Department of Automotive Engineering, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia4
hens2tm@ft.unp.ac.id1
Received: 18 October 2024, Revised: 21 April 2025, Accepted: 28 April 2025
*Corresponding Author
ABSTRACT
The need and utilization of energy in society exceed available production. This condition requires
acceleration and efforts to find solutions through the diversification of palm shell biomass into solid
fuel briquettes. Palm shells have the potential as biomass and renewable energy sources that are
selected based on strategic, technical, and environmental considerations. Its utilization so far has only
been burned directly which causes air pollution or used as road paving in oil palm plantations. The
environmental impact is the accumulation of solid waste, and global warming in the Crude Palm Oil
processing industry. The research objective was to obtain the calorific value of palm kernel shell
briquettes with carbonization process. The experimental research method carried out by innovating
palm kernel shell briquette raw materials at various percentage variances (90%: 10%, 85%: 15%,
80%: 20%, 75%: 25%) using tapioca adhesive. The technical parameters of briquettes making are
molding pressure of 10 MPa, particle grains of 60 mesh, carbonization temperature of 400 o C; 450oC;
500oC with a holding time of 1 hour. From this study, the calorific value of palm kernel shell charcoal
(PKSC) briquettes at a concentration of 85%;15% at a temperature of 400 o C was 25.86 MJ/kg with
tapioca adhesives as the highest calorific value parameters. The technology used to make palm kernel
shell charcoal briquettes is a potential development that can be recommended as a precursor to solid
fuels. The impact of developing PKSC biomass energy briquettes is an innovation in utilizing waste to
create solid fuels. The implications of this research can be applied by home industries or households.
This research is a contribution to solutions in overcoming energy needs and deficiencies as a form of
sustainable energy.
Keywords: Briquettes, Palm Kernel Shell Charcoal, Calorific Value, Carbonization, Solid Fuel.

1. Introduction
The demand for energy is increasing due to the ever-increasing usage. Dependence and
limitations on existing energy will lead to price instability, so that the country has difficulty
meeting expensive energy needs. In this condition, a solution is needed to solve it by finding an
alternative energy source. Accelerating the provision of alternative energy options and adoption
are the steps taken forward. The great potential in Indonesia is biomass, which is a renewable
energy as green energy. The National Energy Policy formulates an increase in the utilization of
biomass renewable energy into new solid fuels. More applicable development is needed to
obtain solid fuel as alternative energy. Biomass briquetting, a densification technology used in
increasing the potential use of biomass energy (Carter et al., 2018). Briquettes are solid fuels
that are processed by appropriate methods into a useful product form. Briquetting is an
appropriate method to convert biomass into a specific form after the compaction process so that
it can be more easily utilized. Biomass has a relatively low energy density due to its high
volatile matter content and moisture content, reducing its thermal efficiency (Jeong et al., 2020).
Some of the requirements of a good briquette are that it has a flat texture and no black marks, is
easy to ignite and does not emit a lot of smoke, non-toxic gas emissions, watertight and not
moldy, showing high combustion rate. In briquetting, there are three ways of briquetting
technology which are affected by molding pressure, heating, binders. The briquetting process
was developed by low compaction using clay, bentonite and yucca starch binders and high
compaction without binders (Tamrin, 2016). The bonding ability of compacted materials is

780

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

greatly influenced by organic or inorganic binders (Obi et al., 2022). The use and selection of
binders needs to be considered, because it can affect the combustion heating value.
In the search for biomass feedstocks that have potential as innovative products for
energy needs. The selection of palm kernel shells as a biomass energy source is based on
strategic, technical, and environmental considerations. Recent research has explored the
potential of palm oil waste as an alternative fuel source. Researchers have investigated the
production of briquettes from palm shells and fibers, finding that these materials can produce
briquettes with promising characteristics. Environmentally friendly disposal of palm kernel
shells is still rarely done in Indonesia (Nabila et al., 2023). Palm kernel shells are usually only
burned directly or only used as pavement in plantations, so their utilization into charcoal
briquettes actually increases their economic value. By utilizing existing waste, simple
technology, and a more controlled environmental impact, palm kernel shell briquettes are a
logical choice in the renewable energy transition (Abogunrin-Olafisoye et al., 2024). Palm
kernel shell biomass briquettes as an energy mix that converts biomass into a highly efficient
solid fuel (Ukpaka et al., 2019). Solid fuel as a biomass energy development can be realized
by utilizing palm kernel shells. Palm kernel shell is the innermost part of the oil palm fruit and
has a hard structure. After processing the oil palm fruit, the shell cannot be processed into oil
and only becomes the solid waste factory. Palm kernel shell as a biomass product as a source
of biofuel, has a high content so that it can produce a large maximum heat energy (Ikumapayi
& Akinlabi, 2018). It is very suitable for further processing to facilitate efficient use as a
briquetted solid fuel. The huge and valuable potential of palm kernel shells to augment energy
security through renewable technologies (Okoroigwe & Saffron, 2012). Tsai's research (Tsai,
2019) found the utilization of palm kernel shells as an energy source in Taiwan resulted in
significant benefits both from an environmental and economic perspective. Palm kernel shell
briquettes proved to be an environmentally friendly and cheaper solid fuel to produce with a
heating value of 18.72 MJ/kg (Osei Bonsu et al., 2020). Research on the potential of tibarau
sugarcane as a fuel after being extracted and then made into briquettes. Hybrid briquettes of
bagasse and durian peel mixture have a calorific value of 14.92 MJ/kg at a mixture of
80%:20% and a density of 0.619 g/cm 3 (Nurdin H et al., 2017). The tibarau sugarcane plant
has the ability to produce low levels of bioethanol has the heat energy or calorific value after
the distillation and fermentation process. Potential of tibarau sugarcane can be recommended
for biofuel development (Hasanuddin et al., 2015). Tibarau sugarcane briquettes with tapioca
adhesive at 80%:20% mixture have a calorific value of 11.22 MJ/kg and a density of 0.565
g/cm3 (Nurdin et al., 2018). Carbonization process can increase the calorific value of tibarau
sugarcane biobriquettes at 300oC (Nurdin et al., 2019). The calorific value of areca fiber
briquettes at a concentration of 80%:20% obtained a calorific value of 12.35 MJ / kg and a
density of 0.318 g/cm3 (Hasanuddin et al., 2020).
Carbonization or pyrolysis processes in briquetting can improve combustion properties.
Pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition process that occurs in the absence of oxygen, and
depending on the heating rate is categorized into fast, slow, intermediate, and flash pyrolysis
(Guedes et al., 2018). Research on pyrolyzed palm shells yielded only 46.68% at a temperature
of 400 C and this will increase the physicochemical properties of charcoal and its combustion
reactivity (Wang et al., 2018). The carbonization process of palm shells can change the physical
properties and increase the calorific value (Jelita et al., 2022). Biomass generally differs in its
chemical and physical properties, thus influencing its response to carbonization or optimal
pyrolysis conditions (Ngene et al., 2024). The amount of heat applied to the carbonization
process removes volatiles from the palm kernel shells as the processing temperature is increased
and color changes occur (Ikubanni et al., 2020). The decomposition of waste into charcoal,
water vapor and volatile organic compounds can be done by carbonization process (Haridan et
al., 2020). Carbonization of raw materials for briquette production allows to increase the
calorific value and fixed carbon content of the briquettes (Kipngetich et al., 2023).
Based on several studies on the carbonization of palm shells as briquette materials,
further research development is needed by optimizing the carbonization process with a
briquette-making formulation so that the optimum calorific value is obtained. In the
development of this briquette biomass energy source through experimental research with

781

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

carbonization treatment of palm kernel shells with the aim of increasing the calorific value of
the briquettes. The success of conducting experimental studies that obtained the quality of
briquettes made from palm kernel shell charcoal became a sustainable solid fuel innovation.
Furthermore research can ensure the sustainability of energy utilization that can have an
impact on the environment.
2. Research Methods
In outline, this research was carried out in several stages according to research procedures
focused on technical laboratory experimental research in an effort to find the optimal
concentration of biomass briquette raw material composition and adhesive. The technical
parameters of the briquetting process need to be taken into account, including the compressive
strength of the briquettes, particle grain requirements, composition and mixing percentage.
Figure 1 shows the process of making PKSC briquettes.

Fig. 1. Preparation of palm kernel shell charcoal (PKSC) briquettes

Then the palm kernel shells are cleaned by washing the fibers that are still attached to the
palm kernel shells. Next, drying is carried out by drying in the sun for several days. The dried
palm kernel shells are further processed for carbonization or pyrolysis by using a furnace. The
temperature used varies, ranging from 400 oC; 450oC; and 500oC with a holding time of 1 hour.
There is a change in color after the carbonization process, where initially the brown palm shell
turns into black. This shows that the charring process on palm kernel shells using the
carbonization method has been carried out. Wang's research (Wang et al., 2018) became the
basis for selecting the carbonization temperature used, where the research stated that the
biomass carbonization process was carried out at a temperature of 400 °C to 700 °C. The
carbonization process of oil palm shells at high temperatures tends to increase the number and
diameter of pores (Hyväluoma et al., 2018) which has an impact on calorific value and volatiles.
The palm kernel shells that have finished the charring process are then ground and
mashed with the Crushing and Grinding stage using the Top Grinding tool. Raw materials that
have been refined in the sieving process using a sieve size of 60 mesh or 250 microns. The
concentration of palm kernel shell charcoal in making briquettes used is 75%wt; 80%wt; 85%wt
to 90%wt.
Biomass briquetting is always combined with the use of adhesives, which in this study
used tapioca adhesives. The use of tapioca adhesive results in good particle cohesion (when
only water is added) (Bazargan et al., 2014). The concentration of adhesive in biomass briquette
making was 10%wt; 15%wt; 20%wt; 25%wt. The concentration of the mixture of palm shell
charcoal and tapioca that has been prepared is then put into a cylindrical mold. The briquette

782

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

molding process uses a hydraulic mold with a pressing pressure of 10 MPa. Studies have shown
that the combination of diverse biomass materials can improve the quality of the compacted
briquettes (Cui et al., 2021). Furthermore, the briquettes are dried by drying in the sun for 4
days. The dimensions of the molded briquettes are 55 mm in diameter and 29 mm in height with
a hole in the middle measuring 11 mm (Figure 2).

Fig. 2. Dimensions of PKSC Briquettes

The research design conducted in analyzing the calorific value of palm kernel shell
charcoal briquettes is guided by laboratory experimental research techniques. The next process
is to heat the briquettes using an oven at a temperature of 110 o for 1 hour and weigh the initial
condition of the briquettes (ma) as water absorption test data. After completion, the briquettes
are removed from the oven and reweighed (m s). Furthermore, samples are taken for the calorific
value test from some of the briquettes at each concentration.
Furthermore, the calorific value of palm shell charcoal briquettes is tested using the
Boom Calorimeter Analyzer LECO AC500. The data analysis technique used is descriptive
statistical analysis, where the results are in the form of quantitative data that will be made in the
form of a table and displayed in the form of a graph. Furthermore, describe or illustrate the test
data in the form of a narrative that is easy to read and understand.
This study focused on obtaining the characteristics and quality of palm kernel shell
charcoal briquettes carbonized at various temperatures. Carbonization efficiency in the form of
yield on briquettes can be measured from the mass before carbonization and the mass after
carbonization. Analyzing the variation of mixture composition and treatment parameters as an
indicator of needs. Theoretically, mathematical calculations can be obtained for the calorific
value of PKSC briquettes. So that from all the tests carried out, the average calorific value of
PKSC briquettes can be known. Then compare the results of the calorific value obtained from
the research with the SNI 01-6235-2000 standard (SNI, 2000). It is hoped that this can be a
solution to alternative energy sources as solid fuel.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1 Density of briquettes
The density of briquettes is one of the key factors affecting their combustion
performance, durability and usability. High-density briquettes contain more fuel per unit
volume, resulting in higher calorific value and greater energy and longer burning (Kers et al.,
2010). In general, the average mass of briquettes produced for each variation and also the use of
different adhesives and the mass of PKSC briquettes obtained is close to the same. Average
briquette mass (m) is 51 g and the volume of the briquette (V) is 66.11 cm 3 obtained from the
dimensions of the molded briquette. Measurements are carried out after the drying treatment
process using an oven at 110oC for 1 hour. Calculation of briquette density is based on the mass
of briquettes after baking and measurement of briquette volume based on the dimensions of
PKSC briquette printing results. From the research calculations carried out, the density of PKSC
briquettes for all variances has the same value approach of 0.77 g/cm 3. In research (Osei Bonsu
et al., 2020) which produced a palm shell briquette density of 1.22 g/cm 3 where the traditional
pyrolysis process only uses a kiln (furnace). When compared, the research conducted shows the
density values obtained are lower than the results of Osei Bonsu et al., 2020. High-density
briquettes tend to burn more slowly because oxygen has difficulty penetrating their interior.
Conversely, less dense (porous) briquettes will burn quickly due to better airflow. Biomass

783

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

density is a factor that can lead to higher, more stable and consistent combustion rates (Oduro et
al., 2024).
3.2 Biochar yield in Pyrolysis
In this study, carbonization was carried out at three different temperatures, namely 400
o
C; 450 oC; and 500 oC. This process will produce biochar, bio-oil, and gas. However, the focus
is only on the biochar product. The palm kernel shells are weighed first before carbonization.
After the carbonization process is complete, the palm kernel shells that have become charcoal
are weighed again. From the difference in mass obtained, the yield produced (biochar yield).
Table 1 - Pyrolysis products yield
Temperature
Biochar yield
(0C)
(wt%)
400
57.86
450
63.50
500
66.23

Pyrolysis is carried out as a function of temperature that produces biochar yield, as shown
in Table 1. The biochar yield increased from 57.86% to 66.23% in the 400 to 500 °C
temperature range. This is because there is still a slow and complete decomposition of
lignocellulose components at higher temperatures, resulting in an increase in biochar yield. In
addition, oil palm shells are rich in lignin and cellulose, which produce high biochar yield at a
temperature of 500 °C.
The results obtained from pyrolysis are from the study (Cai et al., 2020), and the biochar
yield is preferred at lower heating rates and low temperatures. Biochar yield in slow pyrolysis
will produce as much as 60-70 wt% at 440°C and 470°C (Cai et al., 2020). By the results
approach obtained from the study (Onokwai et al., 2023), the optimal biochar yield (40.5 wt%)
was achieved at a palm kernel shell pyrolysis temperature of 357℃. Temperature and heating
rate as pyrolysis operating parameters will significantly affect the quantity and quality of
biochar yield (Lee et al., 2017). From the research (Selvarajoo & Oochit, 2020) it was stated
that the highest biochar yield characteristic was 54.83 wt% at a temperature of 300 and
continued to decrease to a temperature of 500, namely 29.93 wt%, indicating the influence of
pyrolysis temperature.
3.3 Calorific Value
In finding a physical form/model of solid fuel of palm shell charcoal briquettes, then from
a number of briquettes obtained, further testing and treatment and selection will be carried out.
From all the briquettes obtained, analysis was carried out using a physical chemical approach
and observation. A very important test in this context is to determine the combustion calorific
value using a Bomb Calorimeter.
Based on the tests on the Bomb Calorimeter, the calorific value of the briquettes was
obtained as shown in Table 2. The calorific value obtained is based on the calculation of test
data. The results of this study indicate a tendency to use binders in briquettes. Briquettes with
the use of a large amount of binder have an impact on low calorific value. This study
recommends an optimum mixture in making briquettes, namely 85% raw material and 15%
binder at carbonization temperature of 400 oC . This study proves the influence of the amount of
binder used to produce briquettes as solid fuel. In addition, the impact of the carbonization
process on the briquette raw material on the resulting calorific value. Figure 3 shows a graph of
calorific value based on carbonization temperature. From the graph in Figure 3, it can be seen
that there is a difference in calorific value based on the mixing concentration. Increasing the
calorific value of briquettes by adding adhesives results in high volatile content and lower ash
content (Made Mara et al., 2024).
Table 2 - Calorific Value of PKSC Briquettes
Carbonization
temperature
Material of Briquette Mixture
Calorific Value
(0C)

PKSC

Tapioca

784

(Mj/kg)

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

90

10

25,03

85

15

25,86

80

20

24,46

75

25

24,68

90

10

25,04

85

15

24,75

80

20

24,69

75

25

24,81

90

10

25,72

85

15

24,59

80

20

25,04

75

25

24,92

400

450

500

Fig. 3. Graph of calorific value of PKSC briquettes based on carbonization temperature

Calorific value test results of PKSC briquettes with a concentration ratio of 85%:15%
using tapioca adhesive, the highest value was 25.86 MJ/kg at 400 oC carbonization. The results
of this calorific value test show the effect of the carbonization process on briquette raw
materials. The results of this heating value test show the effect of the carbonization process on
the briquette raw material. At a mixture concentration of 85%:15% with a carbonization
temperature of 400 oC, the highest PKSC briquettes volatille matter reached 37.30% and Fixed
Carbon only 52.17%, indicating that the highest calorific value. According to (Vega et al., 2019)
stated that the high fly content of briquettes is very beneficial because it promotes rapid
combustion, which is beneficial for fuel efficiency. High volatile matter and fixed carbon
content make the solid fuel reactive and easy to ignite at low temperatures, resulting in high
calorific value (Kamaruddin et al., 2023).
Several studies that have been conducted by other researchers also show the effect of
carbonization or pyrolysis on the heating value produced. Carbonized palm kernel shell
briquettes have a calorific value of 26.54 MJ/kg as an alternative solid fuel (Mbada et al., 2016).
The calorific value of PKSC briquettes produced in this study was lower than that of bituminous
coal and anthracite but higher than that of firewood, peat and lignite coal. Figure 4 compares the
calorific value of palm kernel shell charcoal briquettes produced from this study with that of
some major solid fuel types adopted from Khurmi (Khurmi & Gupta, 2006).

785

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

Fig 4. Calorific Values of Some Selected Solid Fuel

The carbonization process aims to produce smokeless fuel in the flame, and remove some
of the water content (Mbada et al., 2016). The effect of carbonization temperature shows that
the amount of carbon produced gets smaller the higher the temperature but there is an increase
in tar produced. According to research (Zanjani et al., 2014) (Haridan et al., 2020) that high
carbonization temperatures result the more it tends to reduce the calorific value, volatile matter,
water content, and fixed carbon but the ash content of the briquettes tends to increase. From this
research, the calorific value was obtained according to the SNI 01-6235-2000 standard (SNI,
2000) so it is possible to be an alternative as a solid fuel. A comparative analysis of the
feedstock revealed the specific characteristics of the material, with palm kernel shell charcoalbased briquettes being superior in terms of calorific value. The findings of this study shed light
on the importance of the feedstock carbonization process in impacting biochar yield, which in
turn affects calorific value. In accordance with the statement in research (Guo et al., 2020) that
very important properties to be determined for briquettes are the calorific, chemical, physical
and mechanical properties that can affect their respective applications. The information is
important as details that still need to be developed in further research to find mixed raw
materials (Calliandra wood) and the use of different binders.
Biomass briquette research is an alternative solid fuel in finding solutions to meet energy
needs. According to research by (Sithole et al., 2023), that the improvement of solid waste
management due to organic waste can be used as part of the main feedstock (biomass and
binder) by performing torrefaction and densification processes. The sustainable development of
renewable energy engineering is an advancement in energy utilization in a highly influential and
interdependent environment. The certainty of the sustainability of energy utilization greatly
impacts the environment. According to (Gibson et al., 2017), energy derived from living plants
(biomass) is renewable energy as a solution in meeting energy needs and can reduce
environmental impacts. Sustainability is expected in developing biomass renewable energy as
an alternative to solid fuel. In compensating and saving the environment, there needs to be
sustainability in developing biomass renewable energy in briquette technology (Yustas et al.,
2022). By utilizing palm kernel shell charcoal as a briquette material to obtain solid fuel so that
the negative impact on the environment can be overcome.
4. Conclusion
The study successfully utilized palm kernel shell solid waste by carbonization process
into briquettes as solid fuel. Differences in carbonization temperature have an impact on yield
and heating value in the presence of various mixing concentrations of palm kernel shell charcoal
and tapioca. Carbonization and densification processes can improve the management of solid
waste as the main biomass feedstock. By carrying out the carbonization process on palm kernel
shells, there will be an improvement in the quality of briquettes. In addition, the effect of the
comparative concentration of raw materials also has an impact on the calorific value produced.
The making PKSC briquettes is one of the renewable energy developments in realizing
sustainable alternative solid fuels. In the future, further research needs to be developed by

786

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

blending the raw materials and using different binders. Gradually, the use of coal will be
reduced as fuel, so there is a need for various researches in the search for biomass materials that
can be further processed to produce energy sources.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Research and Community Service Institution Universitas
Negeri Padang for funding this work with a contract number: 1806/UN35.15/LT/2024.
References
Abogunrin-Olafisoye, O. B., Adeyi, O., Adeyi, A. J., & Oke, E. O. (2024). Sustainable
utilization of oil palm residues and waste in nigeria: practices, prospects, and
environmental considerations. Waste Management Bulletin, 2(1), 214–228.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wmb.2024.01.011
Bazargan, A., Rough, S. L., & McKay, G. (2014). Compaction of palm kernel shell biochars for
application
as
solid
fuel.
Biomass
and
Bioenergy,
70,
489–497.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.08.015
Cai, N., Zhang, H., Nie, J., Deng, Y., & Baeyens, J. (2020). Biochar from Biomass Slow
Pyrolysis. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 586(1).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/586/1/012001
Carter, E., Shan, M., Zhong, Y., Ding, W., Zhang, Y., Baumgartner, J., & Yang, X. (2018).
Development of renewable, densified biomass for household energy in China. Energy for
Sustainable Development, 46, 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2018.06.004
Cui, X., Yang, J., Wang, Z., & Shi, X. (2021). Better use of bioenergy: A critical review of copelletizing for biofuel manufacturing. In Carbon Capture Science and Technology (Vol.
1). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccst.2021.100005
Gibson, L., Wilman, E. N., & Laurance, W. F. (2017). How Green is ‘Green’ Energy? In Trends
in Ecology and Evolution (Vol. 32, Issue 12, pp. 922–935). Elsevier Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2017.09.007
Guedes, R. E., Luna, A. S., & Torres, A. R. (2018). Operating parameters for bio-oil production
in biomass pyrolysis: A review. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 129, 134–
149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2017.11.019
Guo, Z., Wu, J., Zhang, Y., Wang, F., Guo, Y., Chen, K., & Liu, H. (2020). Characteristics of
biomass charcoal briquettes and pollutant emission reduction for sulfur and nitrogen
during combustion. Fuel, 272, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117632
Haridan, N. A., Yoshida, H., Salleh, M. A. M., & Izhar, S. (2020). Carbonization of excess
sewage sludge using superheated water vapor to produce fuel. IOP Conference Series:
Materials
Science
and
Engineering,
991(1).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757899X/991/1/012068
Hasanuddin, Nurdin, H., Waskito, & Sari, D. Y. (2020). Characteristic of Areca Fiber
Briquettes as Alternative Energy. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1594(1).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1594/1/012049
Hasanuddin, Nurdin H, Waskito, & Syahrul. (2015). Pengembangan Bahan Bakar Bioethanol
Dari Tumbuhan Tebu Tibarau Dengan Penambahan Zat Kapur Kulit Kerang Untuk
Peningkatan Energi Panas (Laporan Penelitian).
Hyväluoma, J., Hannula, M., Arstila, K., Wang, H., Kulju, S., & Rasa, K. (2018). Effects of
pyrolysis temperature on the hydrologically relevant porosity of willow biochar. Journal
of
Analytical
and
Applied
Pyrolysis,
134,
446–453.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2018.07.011
Ikubanni, P. P., Oki, M., Adeleke, A. A., Adediran, A. A., & Adesina, O. S. (2020). Influence of
temperature on the chemical compositions and microstructural changes of ash formed
from
palm
kernel
shell.
Results
in
Engineering,
8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2020.100173
Ikumapayi, O. M., & Akinlabi, E. T. (2018). Composition, characteristics and socioeconomic
benefits of palm kernel shell exploitation-an overview. In Journal of Environmental

787

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

Science and Technology (Vol. 11, Issue 5, pp. 220–232). Asian Network for Scientific
Information. https://doi.org/10.3923/jest.2018.220.232
Jelita, R., Putra, D., Hafiz, M., Angreini, I., & Fatyasari Nata, I. (2022). Palm Oil Shell
Pyrolysis: Temperature Effect, Kinetics, and Thermodynamics Study. International
Journal on Advanced Science Engineering Information Technology, 12(6), 2513–2518.
Jeong, Y., Lee, Y. E., & Kim, I. T. (2020). Characterization of sewage sludge and food wastebased biochar for co-firing in a coal-fired power plant: A case study in korea.
Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(22), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229411
Kamaruddin, N. A. B., Ghani, W. A. W. A. K., Hamid, M. R. A., Alias, A. B., & Shamsudin, A.
H. (2023). Simulation And Analysis Of Calorific Value For Biomass Solid Waste As A
Potential Solid Fuel Source For Power Generation. Journal of Applied Science and
Engineering, 26(2), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.6180/jase.202302_26(2).0002
Kers, J., Kulu, P., Aruniit, A., Laurmaa, V., Križan, P., Šooš, L., & Kask, Ü. (2010).
Determination of physical, mechanical and burning characteristics of polymeric waste
material briquettes. Estonian Journal of Engineering, 16(4), 307–316.
https://doi.org/10.3176/eng.2010.4.06
Khurmi, R. S., & Gupta, J. K. (2006). A textbook of thermal engineering (Chapter 11 - Fuel). S.
Chand & Company Ltd.
Kipngetich, P., Kiplimo, R., Tanui, J. K., & Chisale, P. (2023). Effects of carbonization on the
combustion of rice husks briquettes in a fixed bed. Cleaner Engineering and Technology,
13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2023.100608
Lee, X. J., Lee, L. Y., Hiew, B. Y. Z., Gan, S., Thangalazhy-Gopakumar, S., & Kiat Ng, H.
(2017). Multistage optimizations of slow pyrolysis synthesis of biochar from palm oil
sludge for adsorption of lead. Bioresource Technology, 245, 944–953.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.08.175
Made Mara, I., Made Nuarsa, I., & Kade Wiratama, I. (2024). The effect of particle size and
adhesive on the ash content and volatile matter of organic waste bio-charcoal briquettes.
International Journal of Engineering Research And Development, 20(3), 67–73.
Mbada, N. I., Atanda, P. O., Aponbiede, O., Abioye, A. A., Ugbaja, M. I., & Alabi, A. S.
(2016). Performance Evaluation of Suitability of Carbonized Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) as
a Veritable Alternative to Coal and Charcoal in Solid Fuel Fired Furnaces. International
Journal
of
Metallurgical
Engineering,
2016(1),
15–20.
https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ijmee.20160501.03
Nabila, R., Hidayat, W., Haryanto, A., Hasanudin, U., Iryani, D. A., Lee, S., Kim, S., Kim, S.,
Chun, D., Choi, H., Im, H., Lim, J., Kim, K., Jun, D., Moon, J., & Yoo, J. (2023). Oil
palm biomass in Indonesia: Thermochemical upgrading and its utilization. In Renewable
and
Sustainable
Energy
Reviews
(Vol.
176).
Elsevier
Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113193
Ngene, G. I., Bouesso, B., González Martínez, M., & Nzihou, A. (2024). A review on biochar
briquetting: Common practices and recommendations to enhance mechanical properties
and environmental performances. In Journal of Cleaner Production (Vol. 469). Elsevier
Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143193
Nurdin, H., Hasanuddin, Darmawi, Setiadhi, Y., & Saddikin, M. (2019). Calorific value of
tibarau cane bio-briquette. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1317(1).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1317/1/012110
Nurdin, H., Hasanuddin, H., Darmawi, D., & Prasetya, F. (2018). Analysis of Calorific Value of
Tibarau Cane Briquette. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering,
335(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/335/1/012058
Nurdin H, Hasanuddin, & Irzal. (2017). Heat Value Analysis of Briquette Hybrid as Alternative
Fuel. In Moch. Solichin & Achmad Syaifudin (Eds.), Prosiding SNTTM XVI (pp. 103–
106). http://www.me.its.ac.id
Obi, O. F., Pecenka, R., & Clifford, M. J. (2022). A Review of Biomass Briquette Binders and
Quality Parameters. Energies, 15(7), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072426
Oduro, W. O., Von-Kiti, E., Animpong, M. A. B., Ampomah-Benefo, K., Boafo-Mensah, G.,
Dazugo, E., Yankson, I. K., Akon-Yamga, G., Issahaku, A., & Ofori-Amanfo, D. (2024).

788

Nurdin et al …

Vol 6(2) 2025: 780-789

Production of sustainable fuel briquettes from the co-carbonization of sewage sludge
derived from wastewater treatment and wood shavings as a sustainable solid fuel for
heating energy. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering, 50, 437–444.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2024.09.011
Okoroigwe, E. C., & Saffron, C. M. (2012). Determination Of Bio-Energy Potential Of Palm
Kernel Shell By Physicochemical Characterization. Nigerian Journal of Technology
(NIJOTECH), 31(3), 329–335.
Onokwai, A. O., Okokpujie, I. P., Ajisegiri, E. S. A., Oki, M., Onokpite, E., Babaremu, K., &
Jen, T. C. (2023). Optimization of Pyrolysis Operating Parameters for Biochar Production
from Palm Kernel Shell Using Response Surface Methodology. Mathematical Modelling
of Engineering Problems, 10(3), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.18280/mmep.100304
Osei Bonsu, B., Takase, M., & Mantey, J. (2020). Preparation of charcoal briquette from palm
kernel
shells:
case
study
in
Ghana.
Heliyon,
6(10).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05266
Selvarajoo, A., & Oochit, D. (2020). Effect of pyrolysis temperature on product yields of palm
fibre and its biochar characteristics. Materials Science for Energy Technologies, 3, 575–
583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mset.2020.06.003
Sithole, T., Pahla, G., Mashifana, T., Mamvura, T., Dragoi, E. N., Saravanan, A., & Sadeghifar,
H. (2023). A review of the combined torrefaction and densification technology as a
source of renewable energy. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 82, 330–341.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.09.080
SNI. (2000). Standar Nasional Indonesia Briket arang kayu “SNI 01-6235-2000.”
Tamrin. (2016). Pengaruh Konsentrasi Perekat Tepung Tapioka Dan Tanah Liat Terhadap Mutu
Briket Batu Bara. Jurnal Teknik Pertanian Lampung, 5(3), 137–144.
Tsai, W. T. (2019). Benefit analysis and regulatory actions for imported palm kernel shell as an
environment-friendly
energy
source
in
Taiwan.
Resources,
8(1).
https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8010008
Ukpaka, C., Omeluzor, Ulochukwu, C., & Kk, D. (2019). Production of briquettes with heating
value using different palm kernel shell. Discovery Journals, 55(281), 147–157.
www.discoveryjournals.orgOPENACCESS
Vega, L. Y., López, L., Valdés, C. F., & Chejne, F. (2019). Assessment of energy potential of
wood industry wastes through thermochemical conversions. Waste Management, 87,
108–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.01.048
Wang, P., Zhang, J., Shao, Q., & Wang, G. (2018). Physicochemical properties evolution of
chars from palm kernel shell pyrolysis. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry,
133(3), 1271–1280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7185-z
Yustas, Y. M., Tarimo, W. M., Mbacho, S. A., Kiobia, D. O., Makange, N. R., Kashaija, A. T.,
Mukama, E. B., Mzigo, C. K., & Silungwe, F. R. (2022). Toward Adaptation of
Briquettes Making Technology for Green Energy and Youth Employment in Tanzania: A
Review. Journal of Power and Energy Engineering, 10(04), 74–93.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jpee.2022.104006
Zanjani, N. G., Moghaddam, A. Z., & Dorosti, S. (2014). Physical and Chemical Properties of
Coal Briquettes From Biomass-Bituminous Blends. Petroleum & Coal, 56(2), 188–195.

789