Simon—The Hour to Understand and Familiarize with Cultural Settings for Marketing...
Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business
September 1999, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 133—143

THE HOUR TO UNDERSTAND AND
FAMILIARIZE WITH CULTURAL SETTINGS
FOR MARKETING
IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM
Wachinga Gikonyo Simon
Much of the literature about culture is related to the crafting of
strategic organizational culture. This is viewed as a lee-way to attainment
of competitive advantage in the field of quality production at the expense
of the impact that culture could have in not only influencing the consumer
behavior but more importantly in designing and planning marketing
strategies in the era of globalization.
This paper, therefore, undertakes to examine various cultural settings
and along which their implications will be dealt with in detail in order to
display the interactive relationship that prevails between culture and its
attributes, and consumer behavior on one hand, and the implication of their
interaction to strategize for global market opportunities by avoiding
culture-marketing clash on the other hand. This paper will not provide a set
of proposed strategies that should be adopted by a global marketer in order
to avoid the cultural dilemmas. At best it will attempt to pin-point those
areas of cultural settings that calls for intensive if not extensive understanding and familiarizing at the same note in this critical era of market
competition as we head for the yet to be defined the third millennium.
Keywords: consumer behavior; cultural settings; global market opportunities; marketing
strategies; third millennium

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Introduction
Different authorities have endeavored to define the concept of culture differently but they seem to agree on some
certain aspects as can be inferred from the
following postulations. Culture includes
both conscious and unconscious values,
attitudes and symbols which shape human
behavior and are transmitted from one
generation to another (Terpstra 1978). Hall
(1960) stated that:
“Culture is man’s medium; there is
not one aspect of human life that is not
touched and altered by culture. This
means personalities, how people express themselves (including shows of
emotion) the way they think, how they
move, how problems are solved, how
their cities are planned and laid out,
how transportation systems function
and are organized, as well as how
economic and government systems are
put together and function.”
Using the two foregoing views of
what culture constitutes we can conclude
that culture comprises of the complex
whole of tangible items, intangible concepts and social behaviors that define a
group of people or a way of life.
Culture is double-faceted. First, there
is material culture, which comprises of all
the tangible things that man makes, uses,
and gives value to such as Rosary beads
for prayers. Second, the nonmaterial culture that comprises of values, beliefs and
rules by which a society directs people’s
interaction such as the use of nonverbal
communication. Culture has values, that
is, the shared standards of what is acceptable and unacceptable, desired and undesired, good and bad, expressed by norms.
Its boundaries are norms i.e. the simple
rules for behavior that are established by
cultures, which specify or prohibits cer134

tain behaviors. Malaysia, like Maldives,
which is dominantly Muslems, has strict
censorship rules with little tolerance for
movie scenes depicting nudity, sex, foul
language, graphic violence, and sensitive
religious themes. As an example, the rejection of the Hollywood animated musical program “The Prince of Egypt” was
interpreted offensively due to the way
Moses is portrayed in the film. Here, there
is no debate for good or bad-but it is the
cultural sensitivity which ought to be
clearly understood before one launches
for a market and/or, marketing strategy
adoption.
Alongside culture there are aspects
such as life-styles and social classes. Lifestyle refers to the patterns of living that
reflects how people allocate their time and
money while a social class refers to a way
of categorizing people on the basis of their
values, attitudes, life-styles, and behavior.
In short, culture should be understood in this case to comprise of the psychographics. By psychographics I mean,
all the psychological variables that combine to shape our inner-self including activities, interests, opinions, needs, values, attitudes, personality traits, decision
processes, and most importantly buying
behaviors.
From this definition we can clearly
infer that every consumer is a product of
culture and society, social class and family. Much attention has been given to the
role of culture on consumer behavior. Yet,
despite the recognition of such factors,
little attention has been paid to examining
their implications for the development of
marketing strategies especially as regards
towards capturing future global market
opportunities in the face of globalization
and competition. The globalization trend
suggests the potential for market segmentation on a cross-national basis. Therefore,

Simon—The Hour to Understand and Familiarize with Cultural Settings for Marketing...

this calls for further anatomy of the cultural influences in order to understand
how to achieve global market development, product positioning and promotion,
communication and distribution.
As mentioned earlier, this paper will
examine how some of these cultural settings (factors) can affect consumer behavior, and to illustrate thereby the need to
consider cultural aspects in handling global marketing strategies for the existing
opportunities. Some key elements of the
cultural setting are outlined and the decision areas and examples of situations in
which these play an important role are
discussed. Last, the advantages and insights to be gained from looking at cultural factors as relates to global marketing
are described.

Cultural Setting and Consumer
Behavior
Cultural differences comprise probably one of the most important barriers to
enter into international market as posited
by Karakaya and Stahl (1991). Culture
affects all areas of marketing ranging from
product design acceptance, the role of
family members in the purchasing process, communication methods, relations
with distributors, and physical distributions. Material culture affects not only the
demand, quality, and type of the products
demanded, and their functional features,
but also the production and the distribution (Cateora 1993). As such consumers
operate within their cultural environment,
they evaluate and respond to marketing
offerings in different ways.
At present, there is no consistent theoretical framework on the impact of cultural forces on behavior in general. Even
the theoretical framework provided by the
social science does not provide adequate

and vivid direction for investigating of
cultural influences in relation to the consumer behavior, and especially so in the
face of cross — cultural diversity. However, one can identify some themes, which
are specifically relevant to the development of global marketing opportunities.
Pivot to any culture or society is a set
of values, shared by its members, which
determine what is socially acceptable behavior. For example Engel et al. (1973)
summed it up as follows:
“The Saudi Arabian and his neighboring Gulf Arabs are essentially one
and the same people; they do not like
to negotiate by paper. They want to
feel out ... to talk, to assess, to bargain... and...the following characteristics are some that Arabs value highly:
quiet, secure strength (neither aggressiveness nor waffling); patience (no
time pressure); and friendship (commitment not competitiveness)...”
A culture’s core values define how
products are seen negatively or positively
and define how market relationships are
set up (Bovee and Thill 1992).
In the light of this, the race relations
are also seen to vary from country to
country. For instance, in Indonesia we can
still see television commercials for Sony
Television with “clear quality” and “29
inch big screen” with its blatantly racist
African caricatures. Cultural values of a
society are not abstract notions since they
find their expression in the products and
service that are demanded and the acceptance of which may be very dependent on
cultural norms (Chisnal 1986).
This means that cultural inhibitions
may frustrate the introduction or diffusion
of a new product. This is especially so
because even relatively fundamental needs
such as food and clothing have become
complex and sophisticated in modern
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times. For instance, the most affluent consumers have built a high edifice of needs
(psychogenics).
The rules regarding the exchange of
gifts are closely governed by local conventions. For example, during a traditional
wedding party among the Kikuyu tribe of
Central Kenya, a couple would expect to
receive tangible products of value as gifts,
unlike among the Americans where a congratulation card suffices the occasion.
Although the relationship between
advertisement and consumer rituals has
not been explored, we find that the former
can influence consumption during such
ritual ceremonies as hunting. From the
former Sony TV commercial, we find that
there are four players namely; the Cheetah
chasing the Antelope and the Maasai hunters armed with spears and shields which I
assume must be reflecting the natural game
hunting spree by the Kenyan tribe beside
the marketer’s role objective for its choice;
and the “29 inch big screen” reflecting the
victim of the spree, the antelope, which is
finally caught by the hunters but not the
chaser. Whatever the meaning of the commercial, the point is that advertisement
employs ritual symbolism to create messages about a product and service designed for use during such occasions. It is
therefore vital for a marketer to be acquainted with the cultural rituals before
undertaking any promotional strategy for
his product and above all avoid conflicts
arising thereof.
The network of social organizations
generates different customs regarding
male—female social interaction (Pride and
Ferrell 1985). For example, sales promotion based on the couple’s togetherness
and of material life could backfire in most
African Anglophone countries where husbands and wives often lead separate lives.
This is not just because of dual career
136

couples’ problems, it has cultural roots
too. The theme may do well in Indonesia
especially among the Javanese community. Likewise, adoption of gender-oriented promotion such as women photographs may meet stiff opposition in places
like Saudi Arabia, though most writers
associate with its religious ethics.
Each country has its own folkways,
norms, and taboos, and these in turn determines the buying habits and business
dealing within a region or on a micro-level
of a community (Russ and Kirkpatrick
1982; Kotler 1988). At the end, this will be
translated into cultural differences among
nations. These cultural differences are apparent not only among the consumers in
different countries, but among the business executives representing the parent
industry abroad in its subsidiaries, too.
This can further be illustrated by the
ways in which different communities attach some certain numbers or products.
For instance, women in Tanzania will not
feed their children with eggs for fear of
making them bald or impotent for the
worse. Likewise, most African communities associate red color with danger. As
such red clothes are avoided in order not to
attract the wrath of lightning on a rainy
day. This is the case in the Lake Victoria
Basin and the Central Highland of Kenya
in the Kikuyu Plateau.
Culture transmits systems of communication among the people about edibility and toxicity and replete of a product. As such culture defines the desired
attributes of a product, it also affects the
mapping of sales territories (distribution)
the theme used or color in product promotion, the pricing. People choose products
that communicate their role and status
(Kotler and Armstrong 1996). For example,
a bicycle tire bearing a brand name ‘made
in India’ is regarded as of low quality in

Simon—The Hour to Understand and Familiarize with Cultural Settings for Marketing...

Kenya, as opposed to those carrying the
brand name ‘made in China’. All of this
resulted from the weak national image
Kenyans have towards products from India. Furthermore, clothes labelled “made
in Indonesia” sells faster because the name
has textile longevity quality meaning from
time in memory.
Mannerism and ethics are culturalbased. In some countries for example in
South Korea, saleswomen like to usher in
a customer into the shops while placing
their hands on the latter’s shoulders as a
sign of welcome, whereas in Japan it is
unlikely because it is not socially condonable.
Racial and ethnic identities affect both
self-image and consumer behavior. Due to
difficulties involved in separating the two,
we find that even in given regions of a
country a particular race or ethnic group is
subdivided further down into small subcultures. Thus, members do not identify
themselves with the broader classification
(William 1992). Therefore, an advertisement aimed for the same group may not
express its message. The Hispanic community of America is a good example. On
the same racial tone, one cannot fail to
appreciate the fact that racial sentiments
have done much to explain about the consumption of certain products or service. If
one could make a flashback of the notorious Dred Scott decision of 1857 by the
Missouri Supreme Court which declared
the entire class of human beings, the people
of African descent, as outside boundaries
national community and the constitutional
protection one may find it as a crucial
factor that has contributed to high consumption of music opposed to racial prejudice among the Afro-Americans. This, of
course has been far revised in the recent
past, though not overturned the ruling entirely because racial sentiments still hov-

ers. Where such racial sentiments prevails, there is bound to occur such racial
and even ethnic identification, in order to
show that they are not handicapped and
are useful. Here, the issue is not to preach
of the racial feelings but to show the importance of understanding the history behind a cultural phenomenon in a given
target market before one designs a market
strategy especially on a transnational platform.
Moreover, etiquette and politeness,
and attitude as regards one’s body and
time could tremendously affect the behavior patterns (Russ and Kirkpatrick 1982).
For instance the Asian time is spent “honoring” especially by letting the ranking
person lead the conversation uninterrupted.
The imperative for selling in Asia is to be
on the wavelength of the cultural values of
the country one is dealing with. For instance, among Indonesian business people
there is a term (jam karet) roughly translated as ‘rubber time’ (Bovee and Thill
1992). All it implies is that time is elastic
and unstructured unlike in the Western
cultures. This does not imply that there are
no cross-cultural markets. All it requires is
adjustment and doing a lot of homework to
thoroughly understand the market. Likewise, Asians seldom respond to an abrupt
and direct approach, and as for Arabs, they
would rather lose a deal rather than do
business without harmony. Their way of
refusing a deal is manifested in many
forms since they regard definite refusal as
counterproductive and insulting.
Another case in point is kissing of
another one’s wife. Among the Americans, kissing of another's wife is usual
whereas among most African communities it may culminate into divorce. Some
parts are held sacred in some communities, and not in others. For instance, patting of another person’s head among the
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Americans is common practice whereas
for the Orient communities it is held sacred.
Religion is a mainspring of culture as
it influences consumption behavior and
attitudes towards time which are fundamental to understanding consumer and
buyer behavior (Terpstra 1978). Different
religions hold different views about consumption of various products. For instance,
Hindu does not support eating of cattle
because it is regarded with sacredness.
Even for services such as banking,
we find them guided by religious teachings upheld in a particular society. For
example, banking in United Emirates and
Pakistan today operates not with the aim of
making interest (Riba). The outgoing principle follows the Holy Koran teaching
which outlaws usury or excessive interest
on any banked money. However, it supports partnerships, joint ventures, and
profit-sharing thus dispelling any form of
business that leads to speculation on money
invested in the bank for a fixed interest rate
earning. Related to this form of banking,
one finds that such business undertaking
should be far removed from production of
pork related products or alcohol (Powel
1997). As a result, it behooves any marketer worth his salt to go full blast into
investigating cultural settings that suit a
society in which he is ready to face in order
to avoid uncalled for dramatic failures
resulting from unwarranted ignorance.
All these aspects of culture are transmitted to a consumer (individual) through
the communication system and language
of the society or subcultural group. The
inherent values, social institutional arrangements and behavior conventions conveyed through communication and language leads to foundation of characteristic
daily routines and rhythms. In Indonesia
for example, billboards and other road138

side advertisements must use only the diverse cultural segments of the society
(Kotler et al. 1996). This is what will
precipitate to consumption and purchasing activities. So, understanding these temporal cultural settings are vital for a global
marketer. Furthermore, the values, behavior and patterns of a society are dynamic in the face of globalization, industrialization, urbanization, technology, and
social mobility that have culminated into
introduction of new cultural patterns and
values. This does not, however, imply that
old cultures have been thrown overboard
but they should be learnt as one because
not all aspects are influenced by all the
factors named in this article. As such it
ought to be taken as a microcosm on which
to build the fundamental basis for interfacing culture and global market strategy to
capture the existing opportunities in a given
cultural setting.

Implication of Cultural Setting
to the Global Marketing
Opportunities
Cultural factors (settings) as can be
inferred from the foregoing analysis posts
such a pervasive influence not only designing the marketing strategies but more
so the planning of the marketing mix. That
is, cultural settings can provide opportunities or weaknesses.
Understanding of cultural practices
can be useful in assessing the kind of,
nature of, and combination of strategies to
adopt in, not only within a country, but
even down to the regions where we have
various subcultural groupings. Asians, for
example, prefer interdependence (e.g. Indonesians call it—gotong royong), harmony and “honoring”. Hence, it would
require a foreign marketer to observe;
respect and deference, affirmative, and

Simon—The Hour to Understand and Familiarize with Cultural Settings for Marketing...

obliqueness in order to communicate with
the customer in such a cultural setting.
An appreciation of cross-cultural differences in values is essential to understand the needs and tastes of customers or
clients around the world. It is also important when the customer enters one’s own
culture. For example, some working
women no longer prepare food at home
and would prefer to buy ready-made dehydrated and frozen food. As such, marketers could adapt to promotion of such
products with the aim of capturing the
niches provided by such working socialclass market segment. This, they could
achieve by using the market research and
available census data in that country, or, a
region to assist in identifying the structure
of social classes.
Likewise, marketers must be aware
of diverse subcultures by examining them
individually and on their own terms in
order to avoid damaging conflict with the
broadly accepted cultural standards. For
example, the sensitive issues in the society
such as abortion and safe sex apparatus
could be promoted with care and tastefully
appeal to a given cultural setting. This
could only be achieved by correctly identifying the factors that is more predictive
for a particular product.
The marketers must check out the
way foreign consumers think about and
use certain products before planning the
marketing program. Illustration of this
could be drawn from the earlier mentioned
case of the Tanzanian women and their
attitude towards the feeding of their babies
with eggs and Central Kenya community’s
attitude towards the association they hold
towards consumption of red clothes.
Differences in the cultural environment of foreign countries may be misunderstood and/or, not even recognized because of the tendency for marketing ma-

nagers to use their own cultural values as
terms of and a frame of reference. This is
likely bring problems for such a blindly
guided global marketer. Thus, the cultural
framework of consumer motives and behavior is an integral part of the understanding of the foreign consumer.
Cultural values and attitudes towards
the material culture, social organizations,
the supernatural aesthetics, politeness and
etiquette and language, ought to be analyzed for their possible influence on each
of the elements in the firm’s marketing
program.
Since culture seems to govern our
eating habits and clothing, it is important
that the global marketer appreciate its impact on product development, promotion,
distribution and pricing of the same products in different markets in order for them
to capture the prevailing market opportunities across a vast cultural diversity.
Similarly, awareness of the ways pictorial conventions are interpreted can be
critical. Again, let us revisit the Saudi
Arabian case where the using of women
photographs as a case model for advertisement is prohibited. It is only once when the
marketer has a clear understanding of the
Saudi’s culture will he be in a position to
interpret the reaction of consumers to alternative marketing strategies (Loudon and
Della Bitta 1979) and will change accordingly.
When products are introduced into
one nation from another, the acceptance is
far more likely if there are similarities
between the two cultures. For instance, the
clearly- drawn cultural line established in
Europe has encouraged stereotypes against
products from other countries. All this will
result from factors associated with race
and ethnicity. So, the international marketer ought to choose (be sensitive) to
cultural differences, especially when it
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comes to media choices with an effort to
achieve effective communication. This
should encompass media rescheduling in
order to have a vast reach.
The conotation of words, numbers,
and symbols requires careful attention too.
For example, a raised thumb in the Western World may be taken as a sign of approval just as nodding the head is among
the majority of the African Countries. To
the Arabs it may be taken as an insult
equivalent to asking someone to sit on that
finger if ever one dared. This and other
body or formal words and symbols may
present great barriers to the promotion of
a product for different cultural groups. It
behaves the companies to send their cadres overseas to learn about different and
general acceptable cultural traits and moreover, the languages, in order to prepare
adequately.
A global marketer should therefore
be thoroughly equipped with communication policy and courtesy because it is where
cultural impact is keenly felt. It determines the appropriateness of promotional
themes in the face of cultural acceptance
and interpretation of the message. Inadequate information about foreign cultures
is a common cause of error (Evans and
Berman 1990). The global marketer must
be certain, therefore, that the sales personnel have an understanding of the influence
of culture on communication. Unless the
latter understands the cross-cultural communication overtones the sales process
could end up in doom. This further calls
for the understanding of the nuances in
both the spoken as well as the silent language such as idioms and body expressions. Moreover, it behooves a marketer
to develop trust upon his clients by creating cordial relationship.
Perhaps an even more nagging situation arises during the product positioning.
140

It is a great prerequisite for a global marketer to understand the significance and
social symbolism of products in different
cultural settings to enhance the designing
of positioning strategies and other related
decisions such as pricing or packaging.
Even when a product is too different to
market because of cultural incompatibility, astute positioning strategy may be
required. For example, a marketer may
choose to position the product as an exclusive and luxurious one to depict it as one
used among a distinguished social class
from an esteemed country or a region. Or,
depict the product as compatible with a
distinguished life-style.
Choice of distribution channels in
global markets can be restricted by cultural conventions. For instance, a marketer who intends to use saleswomen in a
cultural setting must thoroughly understand the social conventions prevailing in
a given cultural group and even in a subculture. Among some African communities, home sales by women are regarded
suspiciously as an intrusion of the family
privacy and this greatly affects the effectiveness of door-to-door sales. Worse still,
such saleswomen are socially regarded as
social misfits who might be coming from
broken marriages or as “sexual loose”
(prostitutes). At least, such occurrences
are limited to ethnic background and tribal
cultural beliefs and sentiments. To a global marketer, she needs to be acquainted
with cultural groupings to help her in segmenting the market rather than using the
social, political or geographical borders.
In any given country (market), there
are ethnic or racial minority who similarly
have a culture that influences their consumption behavior. Hispanic consumers
retain cultural habits, attitudes, interests,
and behaviors even though they are proud
to be Americans. Therefore, to success-

Simon—The Hour to Understand and Familiarize with Cultural Settings for Marketing...

fully reach an ethnic consumer, marketers
need to consider a new picture of America.
This implies choosing strategies that touch
the mosaic of America. This is one factor
that poses constraints to international marketing. In itself, it is a resourceful opportunity for market.
Recent demographic changes indicate the increasing importance of ethnic
minority consumer in America (Cui 1997).
For instance, in the foregoing case, a global marketer could adapt such strategy like
ethnic marketing in order to tap factors
such as ethnic identification and acculturation. For this kind of endeavor, one
needs more than product marketing. That
is, passion and perseverance. This could
be achieved by identifying with that particular people by learning their language
for both advertisement and distribution of
product. Ethnic marketing is not for the
faint-hearted. What is important is reaching the right people. This will assist in
creating an inclusive market rather than an
exclusive one. Knowing that ethnic or
racial consumers have different perspectives that affect their emotions is critical to
being an effective ethnic marketer.
Today, there is a trend towards cultural shift that necessitates the global marketer to be vigilant. That is, the changing
gender roles, the emergence of variation
of families where there is single parenthood, families without children, men or
women living single in small apartments,
and more importantly the increase of leisure time especially in the developed countries. Marketers oriented to family-oriented products have to fashion new products suitable for each family variation and
develop new selling appeals for existing
products to represent the values, attitudes,
and life-styles. The rise in gender roles due
to the rise in the number of working women
in the society requires marketers to adjust

their marketing research, and product design promotion to suit gender choice.
From the environmental experience
there seem to be cropping up another subculture especially so emanating from the
youngsters age-sets .This group has been
breathing and forms a tangible, as well as
a formidable, market catch. This is manifested in various forms ranging from small
groupings to isolate, but whereby in both
categories, their cultural orientation are
similar if not a mirror-reflection. The culture has evolved bearing diverse names as
the members’ backgrounds differ. In Kenya
where I come from , that culture is referred
to as ‘US GUYS’. I believe that this has
mushroomed and deeply ingrained in almost any community the world over. In
Indonesia, though I am not conversant
with the name adopted for this culture, its
manifestation comes inform of too much
adoration for noisy hooting motorbikes or
to the extreme vibrating exhaust piped
autos. Their Kenyan counterparts likes
shaving ‘punks’ (a form of hairstyle cut),
are associated with wearing baggy-jeans
trousers or miniskirt among ladies and
listening to loud music by mounting earphones on their heads wherever they are
found. Here, I am not out to discuss behavior that is often associated with adolescent
stage but about a crucial group comprising
of both working and nonworking people
who could be harnessed for market only
once a marketer has carried out enough
study to understand and familiarize with
that form of a cultural setting wherever it
may be . The feasibility as well as viability
in attempting to exploit this market is
greatly justified by their high propensity to
consume for any product or service that
meet their expectation. As such, studying
such like cultural setting is a worthwhile
investment not only at a local level but on
a global alike.
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Conclusion
Examination of and thoroughly understanding of a cultural environment in a
market location is a key and vital tool to a
global marketer who intends to tap the
scarce competition market opportunities.
The reason for this is because it provides
insights and pitfalls especially for global
market development and segmentation
strategies. The cultural setting provides
hints on how to carry out the distribution,
positioning, pricing and communication
decisions.
Understanding the culture and its dynamic changes will assist in not only transferring the product across - cultures but
more so, to compare the similarity in needs
and problems with the aim of predicting
the future trends.

Worthy of attention is the fact that the
global marketers are assisted in crafting
effective strategies for different country
cultures and evaluate them alongside those
found in another cultural or subcultural
setting. A global marketer must recognize
the cultural influence and must be prepared to either respond or to change especially in the food and service industry. The
management should undertake detailed
research regarding the effect of culture not
only on consumer behavior but also on
marketing strategies and their design. With
such market cultural intelligence data in
place, the global marketer will be assured
of the correct definition of the third millennium marketing trends.

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