Cakrawala Pendidikan
Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan
Vol. 44 No. 3, October 2025, pp.626-635
https://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/cp/issue/view/2958
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v44i3.86082

Sociocultural-based games enhancing manipulative movement skills in
Indonesian kindergartens
Nur Sita Utami12*, Joko Nurkamto1, Mohammad Furqon Hidayatullah1,
Hari Yuliarto2
1
Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia
2
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
*Corresponding Author: nursitautami@student.uns.ac.id
ABSTRACT
This study aims to analyze the influence of a sociocultural-based manipulative movement game model on
the manipulative movement skills in children aged 5–6 years. A quasi-experimental design was employed,
using a pretest-posttest control group approach. A total of 24 students were purposively selected with prior
written consent from their parents or guardians. The experimental group (n = 12) consisted of students from
TK Negeri 4 Yogyakarta, while the control group (n = 12) came from TK Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. The
intervention involved a manipulative movement game model developed based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural
perspective, integrating four elements of physical literacy from the Australian Physical Literacy Framework:
manipulative movement skills, confidence, collaboration, and rule comprehension. Manipulative movement
skills were assessed using the ball skills subdomain of the Test of Gross Motor Development–3 (TGMD3). Data were analyzed using the Mann–Whitney U test and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. The results
revealed significant differences between the pretest and posttest groups (W = 56.949, p = 0.04384) and
between the control and experimental groups in the posttest (W = 44.807, p = 0.0004301). These findings
indicate that the developed model effectively enhances children's manipulative movement skills. The study
underscores the importance of integrating the principles of mediated learning, scaffolding, and the zone of
proximal development into early childhood physical-motor learning. The implementation of this model is
recommended as an alternative approach to physical-motor learning in Indonesian kindergartens.
Keywords: game, manipulative movement, sociocultural, TGMD-3
Article history
Received:
02 June 2025

Revised:
26 June 2025

Accepted:
11 September 2025

Published:
05 October 2025

Citation (APA Style): Utami, N. S., Nurkamto, J., Hidyatullah, M. F., & Yuliarto, H. (2025). Socioculturalbased games enhancing manipulative movement skills in Indonesian kindergantens. Cakrawala
Pendidikan: Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan, 44(3), pp. 626-635. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v44i3.86082

INTRODUCTION
Manipulative movement skills serve as a foundational competency for children’s future
participation in a diverse range of physical activities. These skills encompass throwing, catching,
dribbling, kicking, and striking objects with implements (Sport Australia, 2019). Empirical
evidence suggests that improving object control skills through early motor interventions can
significantly support cognitive development, particularly executive functions, even though its
impact on social development may be less pronounced (Capio et al., 2024). These findings
highlight that the early childhood manipulative movement skill intervention is more effective in
fostering cognitive growth than social.
The urgency of this developmental focus is further reinforced by Vygotsky’s cognitive
development theory. Learning within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) can be optimized
through purposeful, meaningful physical activity. Applying ZPD principles in physical education
encourages more adaptive and guided teaching practices, aligning with children's developmental
capacities (Wang & Zhang, 2022). In this context, teachers serve as social mediators, providing
scaffolding that facilitates the acquisition of manipulative movement skills. These skills not only

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contribute to physical development but also act as cognitive stimuli, cultivated through structured
social interactions. Given their ontogenetic nature, requiring deliberate stimulation and guided
practice (Goodway et al., 2021), the creation of intentional learning environments becomes
imperative. Consequently, embedding manipulative movement skill instruction within early
childhood curricula through a sociocultural lens represents a strategic approach to fostering
comprehensive child development. In addition to sociocultural and environmental factors,
psychological aspects such as goal setting and self-monitoring also play a critical role in the
mastery of children’s motor skills. Hidayat (2012) found that structured goal-setting activities and
consistent self-monitoring significantly enhanced both motor-skill performance and intrinsic
motivation among elementary school students. This finding reinforces the importance of
empowering learners to take active control of their progress, aligning with Vygotsky’s notion of
mediated learning and scaffolding, where motivation and self-awareness become integral
elements in the developmental process.
The development of children's movement skills is influenced by social and cultural factors.
A study conducted in Iran (Mohammadi et al., 2023) found that children living in rural
environments that support physical activity scored higher in both physical literacy and physical
activity levels compared to children residing in suburban and urban areas. This evidence
underscores the importance of considering sociocultural and ecological contexts in physical
education. Prior research has shown that early childhood object control abilities vary by gender
and cultural background. For instance, Indonesian boys demonstrated comparable catching and
kicking skills to their American boys but significantly lagged in hitting and throwing abilities
(Syafruddin et al., 2020). Conversely, Indonesian girls underperformed across all object control
skill areas compared to American girls, except for kicking, in which they performed similarly
(Syafruddin et al., 2020). These findings align with observed differences in object control skill
levels between Indonesian boys and girls aged 5–6, highlighting the need for gender-sensitive and
culturally responsive approaches in early childhood physical literacy education (Dilandes et al.,
2022).
The development of manipulative movement skills in kindergarten settings remains
suboptimal, primarily due to the limited availability of educators trained in physical education. In
public kindergartens especially, physical-motor learning is often facilitated by general classroom
teachers who may lack formal training in this domain. This gap in expertise leads to insufficient
stimulation of children’s gross motor development, including essential manipulative skills such
as throwing, catching, and kicking. Given that physical-motor development is a core component
of the Early Childhood Education Graduate Competency Standards (The Ministry of Education,
2022), this issue warrants urgent attention. Such an approach not only aligns with developmental
theories but also promotes holistic child growth by integrating physical, cognitive, and social
learning experiences.
One promising solution to address the underdevelopment of manipulative movement skills
in early childhood education involves the creation and implementation of contextual, culturally
relevant, and practical teaching resources. A particularly effective strategy is the development of
a sociocultural-based manipulative movement game model. This model is specifically designed
to support the acquisition of manipulative movement skills such as throwing, catching, dribbling,
kicking, and striking by integrating gross motor development with meaningful social interaction,
cultural values, and the foundational principles of physical literacy. This sociocultural approach
aligns with Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, emphasizing learning through social
interaction, mediated learning, scaffolding, and the zone of proximal development (Cole et al.,
1978). Picture books serve as a medium to introduce social interaction within the learning process
of manipulative movement skills. These books are used in read-aloud sessions prior to gamebased activities. Following the storytelling, teachers engage children in manipulative movement
skill game that incorporates elements of Indonesian culture. Throughout the lesson, teachers aim
to foster interaction among students and between students and teachers to build scaffolding that
supports children's progression through their zone of proximal development. The manipulative
movement skill game activities are designed with consideration for four core elements of physical

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literacy: manipulative movement skills, self-confidence, collaboration, and understanding of rules
(Sport Australia, 2019).
This study aimed to investigate the effect of a sociocultural-based manipulative movement
game model on the development of manipulative movement skills in early childhood. The
research was conducted with kindergarten students aged 5–6 years in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The
findings are anticipated to contribute to the existing empirical research on gross physical-motor
learning in Indonesian kindergartens.

METHOD
This study employed a quasi-experimental design to investigate the effect of a
socioculturally grounded manipulative movement game model on the manipulative movement
skills of children aged 5–6 years. The study involved 24 children from two kindergartens in
Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The control group consisted of 12 students from TK Negeri 11, while the
experimental group included 12 students from TK Negeri 4. All participants met the following
inclusion criteria: (1) aged 5–6 years; (2) enrolled as active students in one of the participating
kindergartens; (3) no history of medical conditions that would hinder participation in physical
activities; and (4) obtained written parental or guardian consent to participate in the study. The
instrument used to measure manipulative movement skills was the Test of Gross Motor
Development – Third Edition, specifically the ball skills subtest (TGMD-3) (Goodway et al.,
2021).
The control group did not receive any treatment. Their physical-motor learning followed
the regular routine conducted by the classroom teacher, beginning with singing and body
movements to rhythm and followed by simple ball-game activities.
The experimental group participated in a 12-session intervention, with each session lasting
150 minutes. The intervention consisted of a series of manipulative movement game model
designed from a sociocultural perspective. The model incorporated five types of game, each
focusing on a specific manipulative movement skill: (1) throwing, (2) catching, (3) dribbling, (4)
kicking, and (5) striking with an implement. Each session was structured into four components:
(1) opening (30 minutes), (2) core activity (60 minutes), (3) break (30 minutes), and (4) closing
(30 minutes).
The opening activity introduced students to various manipulative movement skills and
demonstrated how learning can happen through interactions with peers and more experienced
individuals. This segment involved a shared reading of the picture book Serunya Bermain Bola
(The Fun of Playing Ball) as a mediated learning experience.
The core activity provided opportunities for students to practice manipulative movement
skills. Each session began with a warm-up, followed by games that allowed children to explore
various ways of manipulating objects. These experiences were designed to help students build an
understanding of game rules and develop confidence in performing physical movements. Group
games were then introduced to promote collaborative skills. The types of games chosen are
traditional or modified games known in Indonesia, enabling teachers to explore each child’s zone
of proximal development (ZPD) and offer appropriate scaffolding support. The core activity
concluded with a cool-down session to help children relax their bodies.
The break period in the sociocultural-based manipulative movement game model serves a
vital role in supporting both the physical and psychological well-being of young learners. During
this time, children are encouraged to eat and drink together, fostering a sense of community and
reinforcing social bonds. This communal activity is not merely a pause in the learning process but
an intentional strategy to promote social interaction and emotional regulation—two key
components of early childhood development. For example, sharing meals and engaging in
informal conversations during breaks can help children practice turn-taking, empathy, and
communication skills, which are foundational for collaborative play and group learning.
Following the break, the session transitions into a structured reflection activity guided by
the teacher. This reflective phase is crucial for consolidating learning and encouraging
metacognitive awareness in young children. Through guided discussions, children are prompted
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to think about their experiences during the manipulative movement games, such as how they felt
when successfully catching a ball or how they worked together with peers during a kicking game.
These reflections help children recognize their progress in building self-confidence, understand
the importance of teamwork, and internalize the rules of the games they played.
The relevance of this approach lies in its alignment with Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory,
particularly the concepts of mediated learning and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). By
reflecting on their experiences with the support of a teacher, children are scaffolded to articulate
their learning, which enhances both cognitive and emotional development. For instance, a child
who initially struggled with dribbling may, through reflection and teacher feedback, become
aware of their improvement and feel motivated to continue practicing. This process not only
reinforces skill acquisition but also nurtures a growth mindset.
Moreover, the inclusion of culturally familiar games and narratives during the sessions
ensures that learning is meaningful and contextually relevant. When children engage in traditional
Indonesian games such as “Gobak Sodor” or “Bentengan,” they are not only developing motor
skills but also connecting with their cultural heritage. This cultural grounding enhances
engagement and provides a sense of identity and belonging, which are essential for holistic
development.
In summary, the break and reflection components of the sociocultural-based manipulative
movement game model are not ancillary but integral to its effectiveness. They provide
opportunities for rest, socialization, emotional regulation, and cognitive consolidation. By
embedding these elements into the learning structure, the model supports a comprehensive
approach to early childhood education, one that values physical literacy, cultural relevance, and
the social-emotional dimensions of learning.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
TGMD-3 pretest and posttest ball skills subtest
In the initial phase, students' manipulative movement skills were assessed using the Ball
Skills subtest of the TGMD-3 instrument. The pretest data for each skill (K) in the control group
are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Control group pretest data
No.
Skill
Mean
SD
1.
K1
1.332
0.658
2.
K2
1.272
0.492
3.
K3
1.307
0.753
4.
K4
1.083
0.63
5.
K5
1.375
0.57
6.
K6
0.982
0.825
7.
K7
0.873
0.812

Median
1.3
1.25
1.17
1
1.5
1
1

Skew
-0.252
-1.218
-0.88
-0.403
-0.303
0.045
0.0725

Kurtosis
-1.395
1.29
0.51
-0.753
-1.223
-1.24
-1.743

SE
0.19
0.14
0.22
0.18
0.165
0.237
0.235

Given the relatively small sample size of 24 participants (n = 24), the normal assumption
was not met. Therefore, a non-parametric statistical test was employed instead of the independent
samples t-test. The Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test was considered appropriate for detecting location
shifts in median values between groups. Before analyzing posttest differences between the control
and experimental groups, it was necessary to confirm that there were significant median
differences in the pretest scores, particularly with respect to their central tendency. With an
experimental data sample size of n=24, the median value, skewness (distribution slope), and
kurtosis (distribution peak sensitivity level) were analyzed. The skewness value describes the
level of asymmetry of the data distribution, while the kurtosis value provides information about
the peak or flatness of the distribution, especially in pretest data. In this context, the median is
considered more representative than the mean because it is not affected by outliers. In contrast,
the mean can be affected by extreme values, such as maximum and minimum values.
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When comparing the median values from Tables 1 and 2, it becomes evident that several
manipulative movement skills showed notable improvement following the implementation of the
sociocultural-based movement game model. Specifically, the skills that demonstrated measurable
progress included the one-handed dribble of a stationary ball (K3), two-handed catch (K4),
overhand throw (K6), and underhand throw (K7).
Table 2. Experiment group posttest description
No.
Skill
Mean
SD
Median
1.
K1
1.116
0.556
1.2
2.
K2
1.168
0.645
1
3.
K3
1.417
0.846
2
4.
K4
1.61
0.513
1.67
5.
K5
1.29
0.793
1.5
6.
K6
1.395
0.487
1.5
7.
K7
1.373
0.52
1.5

Skew
-0.146
-0.5425
-0.953
-0.805
-0.807
-0.5375
-0.24

Kurtosis
1.462
0.93
-0.39
-0.8
0.5275
0.74
-0.81

SE
0.16
0.185
0.247
0.15
0.23
0.14
0.15

Skill Key: K1: Two-handed strike of a stationary ball; K2: One-handed forehand strike of a self-bouncing ball; K3:
One-handed dribble of a stationary ball; K4: Two-handed catch; K5: Kick of a stationary ball; K6: Overhand throw;
K7: Underhand throw

These skills are essential components of early childhood motor development, requiring
coordination, timing, and confidence in object control. The Mann–Whitney U test confirmed
statistically significant differences in posttest scores between the control and experimental groups,
validating the effectiveness of the intervention. For instance, the improvement in catching and
throwing skills suggests that children benefited from repeated, scaffolded practice within a
socially interactive and culturally familiar learning environment. However, not all students
showed equal progress, indicating that factors such as attendance consistency, engagement levels,
or individual developmental differences may have influenced outcomes.
The relevance of these findings lies in their support for Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory,
which emphasizes the role of social interaction and guided learning within the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD). The game model’s structure, incorporating storytelling, traditional games,
and collaborative play, provided a rich context for mediated learning, allowing children to
internalize movement concepts through meaningful experiences. For example, using culturally
familiar games like “Gobak Sodor” or “Bentengan” not only enhanced motor skill acquisition but
also reinforced cultural identity and social values. Moreover, the integration of reflection
activities helped children recognize their progress, boosting self-confidence and encouraging
metacognitive awareness. These elements collectively contributed to a holistic learning
experience that addressed physical, cognitive, and emotional development. The study’s results
underscore the importance of designing early childhood physical education programs that are not
only skill-focused but also culturally responsive and socially engaging.
Hypothesis testing
Baseline equivalence testing (Pre-test)
A Mann-Whitney U test (Wilcoxon rank-sum test) was conducted to assess the baseline
equivalence of the control and experimental groups prior to the intervention. The analysis
compared the pre-test scores of both groups to determine if they originated from populations with
the same distribution. The results indicated a statistically significant difference at the baseline (W
= 56949, *p* = .04384). This significant pre-test difference reveals that the groups were not
equivalent in terms of manipulative movement skills before the study began. This is a
methodological limitation, as it introduces a potential confounding variable. To account for this
initial disparity, the primary analysis correctly focuses on the change or the post-test difference
between the groups, rather than a direct comparison of post-test scores alone.

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Post-test comparison and treatment effect
A second Mann-Whitney U test was performed on the post-test data to evaluate the effect
of the intervention after accounting for the baseline difference. The test revealed a statistically
significant and substantially larger difference between the control and experimental groups (W =
44807, *p* < .001). The marked significance in the post-test comparison, despite the initial group
inequality, provides strong evidence for the efficacy of the intervention. The sociocultural-based
game model administered to the experimental group is the most possible explanation for the
pronounced divergence in their post-test performance compared to the control group. This
confirms that the treatment had a significant positive effect on manipulative movement skills.
Evidence of treatment effects
A Wilcoxon rank-sum test was conducted to evaluate the effect of the intervention on
manipulative movement skills by comparing the post-test scores of the experimental group (which
received the sociocultural-based game model) and the control group. The results revealed a
statistically significant difference between the two groups (W = 44807, p = .00043).
Since the p-value is substantially less than the conventional alpha level of .05, the null
hypothesis, which stated that there was no difference in the post-test scores of the two groups, is
rejected. This provides strong statistical evidence to support the alternative hypothesis (Hₐ),
confirming that the observed difference in location (i.e., the central tendency of the scores) is not
equal to zero. Therefore, it is concluded that the sociocultural-based manipulative movement skill
game model had a significant and positive treatment effect, successfully improving students'
manipulative movement skills compared to the control condition.
The pretest and posttest data reveal a statistically significant difference between the control
and experimental groups, validating the use of an independent two-sample design. This distinction
confirms that the groups were not equivalent at baseline and that the intervention had a measurable
impact. Specifically, the experimental group demonstrated higher posttest scores, indicating that
the sociocultural-based manipulative movement game model effectively enhanced children's
manipulative movement skills. These skills, such as throwing, catching, dribbling, and striking,
are foundational for physical literacy and future participation in sports and recreational activities.
The structured intervention, which incorporated culturally familiar games and scaffolded learning
experiences, provided children with repeated opportunities to practice and refine these skills in a
socially engaging environment. For example, activities like “Gobak Sodor” and “Bentengan” not
only encouraged physical coordination but also fostered teamwork and rule comprehension,
aligning with the principles of the Australian Physical Literacy Framework.
The relevance of these findings extends beyond statistical validation; they highlight the
pedagogical value of integrating sociocultural elements into early childhood physical education.
The model’s success suggests that culturally responsive teaching strategies can significantly
improve motor skill acquisition, especially when combined with mediated learning and
scaffolding techniques rooted in Vygotsky’s theory. Moreover, the data implies that with a larger
sample size, improvements would likely be observed in additional skills such as the two-handed
strike of a stationary ball, one-handed forehand strike of a self-bouncing ball, and kicking a
stationary ball, skills that showed potential but did not reach statistical significance in this study.
This opens up avenues for future research to explore the model’s broader applicability in various
cultural settings and larger populations. Ultimately, the study underscores the importance of
designing early childhood curricula that are not only developmentally appropriate but also
culturally meaningful, thereby promoting holistic growth in physical, cognitive, and social
domains.
Discussion
The results of this study indicate that the implementation of a sociocultural-based
manipulative movement game model significantly enhances the manipulative movement skills of
children aged 5–6 years in a kindergarten setting. This improvement was most notably reflected
in the significant differences in posttest scores between the experimental and control groups.
These findings provide empirical support for the sociocultural learning theory developed by
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Vygotsky, which highlights the importance of learning within a social context through scaffolding
and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Vygotsky in Cole et al., 1978; Wang & Zhang,
2022).
Statistically, the Mann-Whitney U test revealed significant differences both between the
pretest and posttest groups and between the experimental and control groups at the posttest stage
(p < 0.05). These results reinforce the argument that the developed game model is content-relevant
and effective in practical implementation. The model is grounded in a contextual learning
approach that incorporates local cultural elements and integrates the four key components of
physical literacy outlined in the Australian Physical Literacy Framework: motor skills,
confidence, collaboration, and understanding of rules (Sport Australia, 2019).
Analysis revealed that the most significant gains occurred within the ball skills subdomain
of the TGMD-3, particularly in the one-handed stationary dribble (K3), two-handed catch (K4),
overhead throw (K6), and underhand throw (K7). These skills are foundational, relying heavily
on hand-eye coordination, dynamic stability, and a child's perceived competence in manipulating
objects. The observed progress is likely a direct result of the program's carefully sequenced
session structure. The phased approach, moving from a warm-up (opening) to focused gameplay
(core), a mental reset (break), and a reflective conclusion (closing), framed skill acquisition not
as an isolated drill but as an integral part of a social ritual. This framing made the learning process
more meaningful and socially rewarding, which in turn boosted engagement, reduced anxiety,
and fostered the confidence necessary for skill mastery (Bai et al., 2024; De Sauza et al., 2023).
A notable feature of this model is the use of picture storybooks in read-aloud sessions as a
transitional medium between symbolic experiences (narratives) and motor experiences (game).
This strategy supports the idea that mediated learning experiences can expand children’s
understanding of movement concepts and enhance their cognitive abilities in motor learning
contexts (Feuerstein et al., 1980). In this process, teachers act as mediators, providing scaffolding
to help children reach skills within their ZPD. This is consistent with Vygotsky’s view that
optimal development occurs when learning is facilitated in a meaningful and supportive social
environment.
Furthermore, the core activities in this model are designed to explore manipulative skills
through traditional games or adaptations of local cultural games. This approach aligns with
findings by Mohammadi et al. (2023), which establish that a child's cultural environment
significantly shapes their physical literacy; children from communities with rich traditions of
physical play consistently demonstrate more advanced motor competencies. In the Indonesian
context, this connection is particularly powerful. Games such as bakiak (cooperative wooden
clogs) or engklek (hopscotch) do more than teach balance, coordination, and object control. By
engaging in these shared cultural practices, children unconsciously absorb social values like
cooperation, turn-taking, and respect for rules. Consequently, this method offers a holistic
educational benefit: it simultaneously accelerates fundamental movement development and
reinforces a child's cultural identity, weaving individual growth into the broader fabric of
community heritage.
Overall, the model supports not just the mechanical development of motor skills, but also
the affective and social dimensions of learning, such as confidence and the ability to collaborate.
As described in the physical literacy framework, strong motor competence cannot be separated
from confidence and the willingness to participate in social physical activities (Sport Australia,
2019). Children in the experimental group showed increased confidence in trying new skills and
demonstrated improved teamwork in group play. These results are consistent with the findings of
Capio et al. (2024), which highlight the link between mastery of motor skills and the development
of executive functions, including decision-making and self-regulation.
Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that not all children demonstrated significant
improvement in their manipulative movement skills following the intervention. The data revealed
that several participants showed minimal progress, suggesting that the effectiveness of the
sociocultural-based game model may vary depending on individual circumstances. One key factor
identified was inconsistent attendance; children who missed multiple sessions were less likely to
benefit fully from the structured learning experiences. For example, a child who missed sessions
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focused on catching and throwing may not have had sufficient exposure to scaffolded practice,
limiting their skill development. Additionally, varying levels of interest in physical activity
among children could have influenced engagement and motivation, which are critical for motor
learning. Some children may have been more inclined toward sedentary play or lacked enthusiasm
for group-based physical tasks, thereby reducing the impact of the intervention (Barnet et al, 2025;
McDonough et al., 2020).
This variability in outcomes highlights the need for further investigation into the contextual
and personal factors that influence children's responsiveness to physical-motor interventions.
Parental support, for instance, plays a crucial role in reinforcing learning outside the classroom.
Children whose parents encourage active play at home may experience more consistent skill
reinforcement, while those without such support may struggle to retain and apply what they learn.
Health conditions, such as motor coordination difficulties or sensory sensitivities, could also
affect a child’s ability to participate fully in movement-based activities. Understanding these
factors is essential for refining the model and ensuring its inclusivity. Future iterations of the
program might incorporate differentiated instruction, flexible scheduling, or additional support
mechanisms to accommodate diverse learner needs. By addressing these challenges, educators
can enhance the model’s effectiveness and ensure that all children regardless of background or
ability have the opportunity to develop essential manipulative movement skills (Flynn et al., 2023;
He et al., 2024).
These findings carry significant implications for the advancement of physical education
practices in early childhood settings. First, the sociocultural-based approach demonstrated
empirical effectiveness in enhancing manipulative movement skills, particularly when
implemented through contextually grounded strategies that incorporate local cultural values and
children's social environments. By embedding traditional games and culturally familiar narratives
into physical-motor learning, educators can create meaningful and engaging experiences that
resonate with children lived realities. This approach not only facilitates skill acquisition but also
fosters a sense of identity and belonging, which are essential for holistic development. For
example, integrating games such as Gobak Sodor or Bentengan enables children to practice object
control skills within a familiar social framework, thereby reinforcing both motor competence and
cultural relevance. This finding is consistent with the work of Sutapa and Suharjana (2020), who
demonstrated that kinaesthetic and contemporary-based physical activities can substantially
improve gross motor competence in early childhood. Their study emphasized that structured
physical movements, integrated with rhythmic and contextualized learning, support not only
physical coordination but also cognitive and affective growth. The present study extends this
perspective by showing that incorporating sociocultural values and traditional games further
enhances the authenticity and engagement of motor-skill learning experiences in Indonesian
kindergarten contexts
Second, the study underscores the urgent need for targeted professional development
among kindergarten educators, especially those lacking formal training in physical education.
Equipping teachers with foundational knowledge of physical literacy, including its core
components of motor skills, confidence, collaboration, and rule comprehension, can significantly
enhance instructional quality and learning outcomes. The game-based model developed in this
research offers a replicable and adaptable framework that can be tailored to diverse regional and
cultural contexts across Indonesia. Its success suggests that early childhood physical education
should move beyond generic motor activities and embrace integrative, culturally responsive
pedagogies. Such innovations are critical for aligning classroom practices with national
competency standards and for promoting equitable access to quality physical-motor education in
early childhood institutions (Suryadi et al., 2023).
Moreover, the study highlights the urgency of strengthening early childhood education
policies and curricula to provide greater emphasis on the development of gross motor skills
through integrative and contextual approaches. Many early childhood education institutions still
overlook the role of physical education due to limited human resources and inadequate facilities.
Yet, motor skills development is part of the Early Childhood Education Graduate Competency

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Standards established by the Ministry of Education (Permendikbudristek, 2022) and should be
addressed proportionally alongside cognitive and socio-emotional aspects.
Moreover, the study highlights the urgency of strengthening early childhood education
policies and curricula to place greater emphasis on the development of gross motor skills through
integrative and contextually grounded approaches. Despite the inclusion of motor development
in the Early Childhood Education Graduate Competency Standards (Permendikbudristek, 2022),
many institutions continue to overlook its importance due to limited human resources and
inadequate facilities. This gap is particularly evident in public kindergartens, where physical
education is often delivered by generalist teachers lacking formal training in motor skill
instruction. As a result, children may not receive sufficient stimulation in essential manipulative
skills such as throwing, catching, and kicking, skills that are foundational to physical literacy and
overall developmental readiness. Addressing this issue requires not only policy reform but also
strategic investment in teacher training, infrastructure, and culturally relevant learning materials.
From a methodological standpoint, the study’s use of a quasi-experimental design
combined with non-parametric statistical tests represents a strength, particularly given the small
sample size and non-normal data distribution. The Wilcoxon and Mann–Whitney U tests provided
robust insights into median score differences between groups, while analyses of skewness and
kurtosis offered a deeper understanding of data distribution characteristics. These methodological
choices ensured the reliability of the findings and reinforced the validity of the intervention’s
impact. However, the study’s limitations, most notably the small sample size (n = 24), necessitate
cautious interpretation and underscore the need for future research involving larger, more diverse
populations. Additionally, the long-term sustainability of the intervention’s effects remains
unexplored. Longitudinal studies are recommended to assess whether improvements in
manipulative movement skills persist over time and contribute to broader developmental
outcomes. Overall, the sociocultural-based manipulative movement game model presents a
promising pedagogical innovation that aligns with national standards and supports holistic child
development in early childhood education.

CONCLUSION
This study concludes that the sociocultural-based manipulative movement model is
significantly effective in improving manipulative movement skills in early childhood. The
implementation of this model, grounded in Vygotsky’s theoretical concepts of mediated learning,
scaffolding, and the zone of proximal development (ZPD), has been shown to support the
development of skills such as dribbling, catching, and throwing. The significant post-test score
differences between the experimental and control groups indicate that the model offers a
meaningful, adaptive, and developmentally appropriate learning environment. The integration of
sociocultural elements into learning activities, such as storybooks, traditional games, and smallgroup social interaction, also fosters self-confidence, collaboration, and an understanding of game
rules. This approach not only supports children's motor development but also promotes their
cognitive and socio-emotional growth holistically. Therefore, the sociocultural-based
manipulative movement game model is recommended as an alternative instructional strategy for
physical-motor learning in Indonesian kindergartens. The implementation of this model requires
teacher training, provision of culturally relevant learning materials, and supportive curriculum
policies that prioritize early childhood physical literacy. Future research involving larger samples
and longitudinal designs is recommended to explore the long-term impact of this model on
children’s overall development.

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