e-ISSN: 2807-2820 Natural Sciences Engineering Technology Journal [NASET Journa.
https://nasetjournal.
Mycotoxicological Profiling and Chromatographic Characterization of Retail Spices:
A Mechanistic Evaluation of Microclimatic Packaging Dynamics on Aflatoxin Biosynthesis in Tropical Environments Khrisna Agung Cendekiawan1,2*.
Linda Suci Anggraeni2.
Firdha Aprillia Wardhani3.
Rina Fitriana4 1Department of Doctoral Pharmacy.
Faculty of Pharmacy.
Universitas Ahmad Dahlan.
Jogjakarta.
Indonesia 2Department of Bachelor Pharmacy.
Faculty of Health Sciences.
Universitas dr.
Soebandi.
Jember.
Indonesia 3Department of Clinical and Community Pharmacy.
Faculty of Pharmacy.
Universitas Jember.
Jember.
Indonesia 4Department of Agromedicine.
Faculty of Public Health.
Universitas Jember.
Jember.
Indonesia
ARTICLE
ABSTRACT
INFO
Keywords:
Aflatoxin B1 Aspergillus flavus Fluorescence detection Food toxicology Fusarium oxysporum *Corresponding author:
Khrisna Agung Cendekiawan E-mail address:
khrisnaagungfarmasi@uds.
All authors have reviewed and approved the Anal version of the manuscript.
https://doi.
org/10.
37275/nasetjournal.
Spices produced in equatorial tropical climates are highly susceptible to mycotoxin contamination.
Aflatoxin, a carcinogenic secondary metabolite synthesized by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, poses a severe global public health threat by inducing hepatotoxicity and transversion This study investigates the prevalence of toxigenic fungi and quantifies aflatoxin analogues in retail culinary spices across varying microclimatic environments.
An observational surveillance study was conducted using purposive sampling of onion, turmeric, and pepper matrices from traditional markets and modern supermarkets.
Fungal characterization utilized Potato Dextrose Agar and Nash-Snyder media.
Precise quantification of Aflatoxins B1.
B2.
G1, and G2 was executed via high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) and postcolumn derivatization.
Mycological isolation confirmed pervasive colonization by Aspergillus flavus.
Penicillium spp.
, and Fusarium Method validation yielded excellent recovery .
reater than 85%) and precision.
Supermarket-sourced pepper (Sample C.
exhibited catastrophic hyper-contamination, with Aflatoxin B1 at 45.
35 ppb and total aflatoxins at 99.
35 ppb.
Turmeric demonstrated intrinsic resistance, with maximum Aflatoxin B1 at 1.
41 ppb.
Non-parametric Spearman rank analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between trapped packaging micro-humidity and aflatoxin synthesis.
In conclusion, modern non-vacuum packaging methodologies drastically elevate trapped microhumidity, heavily driving the logarithmic growth and toxicological output of Aspergillus.
Strict regulatory enforcement of storage humidity and water activity monitoring is urgently required in commercial retail sectors.
Introduction in agricultural products.
Spices, which are primarily Natural cultivated in high-humidity equatorial regions such as Indonesia, represent a highly conducive, nutrient- however, inappropriate post-harvest mycotoxigenic fungi.
Improper drying methodologies environmental exposure often yield severe health- and suboptimal storage protocols further exacerbate hazardous biological byproducts.
1,2 The escalation of the colonization of Aspergillus and Fusarium species global food safety concerns is increasingly attributed on these condiments.
to uncertain climate changes, which provide optimal thermodynamic conditions for microbial proliferation Mycotoxins, metabolites produced by microfungi during their logarithmic growth phases, pose severe acute and chronic threats to both human and animal health, exceeding an astonishing 3000 ppb.
9,10
While leading to toxicological syndromes collectively termed mycotoxins in agricultural staples is well-documented, 5,6 Among these naturally occurring toxins, aflatoxins represent the most hazardous and specifically on spice matrices within localized tropical strictly regulated subset.
Outbreaks of fatal acute retail microclimates remains sparse.
This study aims to analytically quantify the types and specific levels of consequences of improper post-harvest foodstuff aflatoxin contamination in distinct culinary spices management, as frequently reported in developing .
nion, tropical nations.
The chronic consumption of highly traditional open-air markets and modern enclosed contaminated foods is clinically associated with severe supermarkets in the Jember area.
The fundamental hepatotoxicity, and in chronic instances, fulminant novelty of this research lies in correlating highly liver failure leading to mortality.
Aflatoxins are chemically classified into six primary structurally related analogues: B1.
B2.
G1.
G2.
M1, and M2.
Aflatoxin B1 is universally recognized as the phases of Aspergillus and Fusarium, thereby providing most potent naturally occurring hepatocarcinogen a sophisticated mechanistic understanding of fungal within this group.
Its toxicological mechanism is contamination pathways in varying commercial retail following hepatic biotransformation by cytochrome P450 enzymes into the highly reactive Aflatoxin B1-8,9-epoxide, the molecule forms stable Methods adducts with cellular macromolecules.
Specifically, its Study design and sampling strategy mechanism involves the direct alteration of the This research utilized an observational surveillance Deoxyribonucleic Acid genetic code, inducing targeted study design employing purposive sampling.
The transversion mutations from codon 249 guanine to target population consisted of commercially available This specific mutation severely impairs the culinary spices distributed across retail sectors in the functional capacity of the p53 tumor suppressor Jember Regency.
A purposive sampling technique was antigenAioften termed the guardian of the genomeAi employed to select representative organic matricesAi subsequently precipitating Hepatocellular Carcinoma specifically certified onion, turmeric, and pepperAi by up to 50 percent in exposed populations.
from three distinct traditional markets (Markets X.
To mitigate these severe public health risks.
Z) and three modern supermarkets (Supermarkets X, regulatory frameworks globally restrict permissible Y.
Z).
Samples weighing 100 grams per unit were mycotoxin levels in human food supplies.
European countries mandate an exceptionally strict maximum transport bags and immediately preserved at 18AC tolerance for total aflatoxin content in spices at 10 prior to chemical extraction to successfully arrest any AAg/kg .
and for Aflatoxin B1 at 5 AAg/kg .
further fungal metabolism or secondary metabolite Indonesia, the National Agency of Food and Drug A total of 18 specific sample matrices were Control sets maximum limits for spices at 20 ppb for vacuum-sealed total aflatoxins and 15 ppb for Aflatoxin B1 under Regulation No.
8 of 2018.
Despite these legally binding Environmental parameter monitoring regulations, domestic surveillance programs have To establish the environmental covariates driving continuously reported significant breaches, including fungal proliferation, localized microclimatic data were recorded directly at the sampling sites.
Calibrated digital thermo-hygrometers were deployed at the subsequently eluted by denaturing the antibodies using 1 mL of HPLC-grade methanol into amber vials environments to log ambient temperature (AC) and to prevent photodegradation.
relative humidity (%) continuously over a 24-hour observation period.
Derivatization high-performance chromatography quantification Mycological The 1 mL purified sample within the amber vial was evaporated under a gentle stream of ultra-pure Samples were subjected to rigorous microbiological nitrogen gas until completely dry.
Because Aflatoxins plating to isolate and taxonomically identify fungal B1 and G1 exhibit poor natural fluorescence in strains based on morphological and microscopic aqueous mobile phases, pre-column derivatization Cultivation was performed on Potato Dextrose Agar media to broadly isolate distinct fungal Trifluoroacetic Acid to hydrate the terminal furan ring, followed by vortexing for 30 seconds and a 15-minute ambient incubation in the dark at room temperature.
Nash-Snyder Finally, the derivatized mixture was reconstituted in medium (Peptone PCNB aga.
was strategically utilized 900 microliters of an acetonitrile-aquabidest mixture instead of clinical media.
Microscopic observation of at a volumetric ratio of 1 to 9.
particularly Aspergillus and Penicillium.
specifically Fusarium the purified fungal isolates was conducted at 100x Quantitative analysis was executed at the Central magnification to evaluate conidial head structures.
Laboratory of Agro Industry (Bogor.
Indonesi.
using vesicle shape, and phialide arrangements.
an HPLC system equipped exclusively with a highly sensitive Fluorescence Detector.
Separation of the Sample extraction and immunoaffinity purification The preparation of standard solutions and sample aflatoxin analogues was carried out utilizing a reversephase C18 extraction required precisely weighing 5 grams of measuring 50 x 4.
6 mm with a 3.
0 micrometer particle pepper, 25 grams of onion, or 25 grams of turmeric.
The mobile phase, comprising an isocratic blend which was then combined with 5 grams of Sodium of water, acetonitrile, and methanol, was delivered at chloride powder to enhance the ionic strength of the a continuous flow rate of 1 mL per minute with a 100 extraction mixture.
The homogenate was suspended in microliter injection volume.
Fluorescence detection 70 mL of an 80% methanol/water .
extraction was optimized with an excitation wavelength of 362 solvent and blended at high velocity for 2 minutes to nm and an emission wavelength of 455 nm.
The ensure complete matrix disruption.
aflatoxin levels were calculated utilizing a multi-point Following gravity filtration through Whatman calibration curve with a linear fit equation y = bx c.
microfiber filter paper, the clear filtrate was pipetted to a precise volume of 15 mL, diluted with aquabidest to Statistical analysis 30 mL, and agitated until entirely homogeneous.
For Quantitative chemical data derived from the critical purification, 15 mL of the diluted filtrate was chromatographic analysis were structured into robust passed through an AflaTest immunoaffinity column Given the relatively small sample size (N = containing highly specific monoclonal antibodies at a .
and the highly skewed, non-normal distribution of rigorously controlled gravity flow rate of 1 drop per the toxicological data, non-parametric statistical second, followed immediately by a 10 mL aquabidest methods were employed.
To assess the relationship wash at 2 drops per second to remove unbound matrix between ambient retail humidity metrics and the total accumulated aflatoxin load without falling victim to The statistical Spearman rank-order exhibited ambient temperatures ranging from 23 to 27AC and highly fluctuating relative humidity levels Statistical significance was predefined at spanning 70 to 84 percent.
In stark contrast, modern alpha = 0.
enclosed supermarkets maintained slightly cooler environments measuring 21 to 24AC, but recorded Results and Discussion remarkably high, stagnant localized humidity levels Thermo-hygrometer measurements demonstrated ranging from 73 to 88 percent.
As detailed in Table 1, distinct and statistically significant microclimatic Supermarket variations across the commercial retail types in the humidity peak at 88 percent alongside a temperature Jember of 24AC.
Regency.
Traditional open-air Figure 1 delineates the systematic mycological isolation and taxonomic characterization pathways environmental strains.
This precise approach yielded utilized to evaluate the commercial spice matrices, specifically analyzing onion, turmeric, and pepper flavus.
Aspergillus and Aspergillus of Aspergillus fumigatus.
Aspergillus mycotoxigenic fungal communities, the analytical various Penicillium species (Figure .
Concurrently, a methodology employed a highly specialized dual-track secondary targeted cultivation pathway was executed cultivation strategy.
The primary diagnostic pathway utilizing Nash-Snyder medium.
This specific agar utilized Potato Dextrose Agar as a broad-spectrum selection was strategically implemented to effectively medium, which successfully promoted the robust isolate Fusarium pathogen that is frequently undetected on standard The characterization protocol strictly evaluated critical media, which was definitively isolated from the heavily structural phenotypic markers, including conidial contaminated sample matrices.
Following macroscopic head architecture, vesicle conformation, and specific Cultivated meticulously examined at 100x magnification to This framework ensured a highly accurate biological assessment of the active fungal contamination driving the toxicological burden within the retail spices.
precisely assess distinctive morphological features.
Figure 1.
Fungal taxonomy and isolation pathway.
Figure 2.
Observation result of fungal colony isolate.
A2 .
nion sample .
B1 .
urmeric sample .
, and C6 .
epper sample .
Top image: the isolate observation result of the fungal colony isolates based on the morphology and characteristics of fungi.
Bottom image: the microscopic observation results of fungal isolates by 100 magnification.
Figure 3.
Observation of Fusarium oxysporum growing on spices in the blood agar media.
A2 .
nion sample .
B5 .
urmeric sample .
, and C2 .
epper sample .
Top image: macroscopic observation on blood agar media.
Bottom image: microscopic observation results of fungal isolates by 100 magnification.
Table 2 delineates the comprehensive analytical High method validation parameters established for the sensitivity was rigorously confirmed through the high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with empirical determination of the limits of detection and Specifically, the limit of detection for toxicological assessment.
The chromatographic assay the highly potent Aflatoxin B1 was established at an ultra-trace corresponding limit of quantification was firmly set at targeted analoguesAiAflatoxin B1.
B2.
G1, and G2Ai 50 AAg/kg, ensuring robust detection capabilities yielding correlation coefficients (R-squared value.
operating well below stringent international regulatory AAg/kg, thresholds.
To critically evaluate analytical accuracy the calculation of the Relative Standard Deviation, and mitigate potential matrix interference, exhaustive which remained consistently below 5.
5 percent across This validation metrics unequivocally substantiate the recovery rates ranging from 88.
5 percent for Aflatoxin absolute reliability and precision of the utilized B2 to 94.
2 percent for Aflatoxin G1.
Furthermore, chromatographic framework.
Consequently, overarching method precision was validated through HPLC-FLD Samples C1.
C2.
C3, and C5 contained trace amounts quantifications for Aflatoxins B1.
B2.
G1, and G2 of Aflatoxin B1 ranging from 0.
64 to 0.
79 ppb.
across the 18 samples.
Onion Samples: Sample A2.
Critically, obtained from Traditional Market Y, contained a low Supermarket X, exhibited catastrophic contamination level of 0.
14 ppb of Aflatoxin B1.
Sample A3, obtained levels far exceeding any global regulatory limits.
This from Traditional Market Z, demonstrated an elevated singular sample contained 45.
35 ppb of Aflatoxin B1, level of 1.
55 ppb Aflatoxin B1 and a total aflatoxin load 74 ppb of Aflatoxin G1, 2.
08 ppb of Aflatoxin B2, 83 ppb.
Turmeric Samples: The vast majority 18 ppb of Aflatoxin G2, resulting in a staggering total aflatoxin concentration of 99.
35 ppb (Table .
Sample C4, uncontaminated .
elow the limit of quantificatio.
Statistical However.
Sample B5, sourced from Supermarket Y, between ambient retail humidity metrics and the total exhibited quantifiable contamination, containing 1.
accumulated aflatoxin load via the Spearman rank- ppb of Aflatoxin B1 and 3.
57 ppb total aflatoxins.
order correlation revealed a moderate, statistically Pepper Samples: The pepper matrices demonstrated significant positive relationship .
ho = 0.
61, p < 0.
the most profound and severe toxicological burden.
The mycotoxicological profiling conducted in this The transition from the primary metabolic intensive investigation clearly elucidates the highly trophophase to the secondary metabolic idiophase is intricate dynamic relationship between environmental entirely dictated by these microclimatic variables, microclimates, post-harvest packaging methodologies, effectively transforming benign culinary spices into potent vectors for severe human disease.
Physiologically, toxigenic fungi, particularly both Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus The most critical, alarming, and unequivocally significant finding of this comprehensive study is the possess a remarkable evolutionary adaptability that extreme hyper-contamination observed explicitly in allows them to survive optimally and synthesize obtained from Supermarket X.
The quantified total temperatures ranging from 36 to 38 degrees Celsius, aflatoxin level of 99.
35 parts per billion drastically violates the strict Indonesian National Agency of Drug exceeding 85 percent.
The ambient thermodynamic and Food Control regulatory maximum limits of 20 conditions recorded directly in Jember's retail markets parts per billion for total aflatoxin and 15 parts per parallel these specific physiological parameters closely billion for Aflatoxin B1 in spices by a factor of nearly enough to repeatedly trigger the logarithmic growth Such extraordinary concentrations present an phase of the fungus.
During this aggressive biological acute toxicological hazard, completely unsuitable for phase, the fungal organism rapidly adapts to the human consumption and indicative of a profound highly conducive tropical environment, fastens its failure in post-harvest quality assurance protocols.
structural mycelial growth deeply onto a proper The underlying biophysical mechanism driving this carbohydrate-rich severe hyper-contamination is intrinsically linked to modern retail packaging practices deployed within carcinogenic secondary toxins as a biochemical stress supermarket environments.
The C4 pepper product
C4,
was commercially processed and packaged utilizing a non-vacuum.
Conversely, turmeric matrices demonstrated a Consequently, the ambient temperature and highly notable and biochemically fascinating resilience observed in this regional study.
packaging severely affected the localized micro- toxicological secondary metabolite production.
Across environment of the latent Aspergillus spores.
the extensive sampling grid, only sample B5, which was improperly packaged in a dense styrofoam tray differentiate between ambient room relative humidity and wrapped tightly with non-porous plastic film, and the specific water activity of the biological spice presented a quantifiable, yet remarkably low, aflatoxin matrix itself.
13 While the broader supermarket retail concentration at 1.
41 parts per billion.
15 Turmeric environment measured an already elevated 88 percent sourced directly from traditional open-air markets did relative humidity, the non-vacuum polymer barrier primarily because it was stored in an open, highly contain any trace of quantifiable aflatoxin aerated container.
The commercial consumer buying cooler, conditioned air of the store.
This physical cycle and the ambient air cycle in traditional markets restriction drastically elevated the surface water happen significantly quicker than in enclosed modern activity on the individual pepper grains.
therefore, the turmeric is simply not This trapped micro-humidity directly stimulated the complex physiological and enzymatic pathways of temporal window required for fungal proliferation.
However, beyond simple physical ventilation and biosynthesis of Aflatoxins B1 and G1 through the rapid turnover rates, the primary biochemical factor polyketide synthase pathway.
The trapped moisture strongly inhibiting mycotoxin presence is the highly acts as a crucial catalyst for spore germination and potent intrinsic anti-fungal substance native to the subsequent hyphal extension, allowing the mycelial network to penetrate the pericarp of the pepper.
This exceptionally rich intracellular levels of Curcuminoids, phenomenon is highly and globally consistent.
with Curcumin Difureloylmethane acting as the main contaminated pepper is a highly prevalent and bioactive component.
This specific phenolic compound persistent issue in most major pepper-producing functions powerfully as a multi-target anti-fungi, anti- countries due to traditional, outdated processing Extensive biological and mycological research environments, which is then severely compounded by has definitively proven that curcumin essential oil derived directly from turmeric matrices can forcefully processing, pepper berries are often subjected to and effectively inhibit the mycelial growth and initial prolonged retting in stagnant water and subsequent spore germination of Aspergillus flavus.
stored for an extended duration, minimizing the During Turmeric anti-cancer open-air sun-drying on the ground, introducing a The biochemical mechanism of this inhibition is massive initial fungal spore load.
When these heavily profoundly sophisticated.
Administering curcuminoid inoculated matrices are sealed in non-breathable extract at a 2000 parts per million concentration in controlled laboratory settings can substantially slow Previous rigorous chromatographic analyses conducted in neighboring Malaysia similarly revealed that 47.
flavus and the plant pathogen Fusarium oxysporum.
percent of retail white and black pepper samples were The curcuminoid molecules achieve this by directly systematically contaminated with highly dangerous disrupting the structural integrity of the fungal both Aspergillus membrane ergosterol, which induces fatal membrane temperatures holding consistently at 27 degrees turmeric extract at an remarkably low concentration Celsius, opportunistic post-harvest pathogens such of just 0.
5 percent can effectively downregulate specific as Aspergillus and Fusarium are provided the absolute gene expressions within the fungal genome, thereby ideal thermodynamic microclimate to induce rapid enzymatic decay on the vulnerable onion tissues.
High by Aspergillus flavus by an incredible 99.
99 percent.
localized humidity directly accelerates the crucial first This targeted genetic downregulation specifically phase of spore imbibition and pathogen growth, inhibits the transcription of the aflR regulatory gene, allowing highly destructive fungi such as Phytophora effectively silencing the entire downstream enzymatic palmivora.
Fusarium cascade required to convert precursor molecules into solani to proliferate exponentially.
These organisms the highly toxic Aflatoxin B1 structure.
Thus, turmeric secrete potent pectinolytic enzymes that degrade the possesses a dual-action defense system: physically structural plant cell walls, leading to soft rot and destroying the fungal cell while simultaneously providing further aqueous nutrients for secondary paralyzing its toxicological synthesis capabilities.
toxigenic invaders like Aspergillus flavus.
To strictly and Altenaria prevent the severe downstream risks of mycotoxin facilitated superior ambient air cycling for completely contamination, alterations in matrix color, tactile firmness, and smellAiwhich are universally considered severely facilitated fungal contamination in organic, primary clinical signs of active fungi growingAimust be strictly taken into account by vendors during the Samples A2 and A3 obtained from traditional entire storage duration.
Routine culling of infected markets contained quantifiable Aflatoxin B1 at 0.
matrices is absolutely essential to prevent the parts per billion and 1.
55 parts per billion respectively.
logarithmic spread of fungal spores throughout the While these concentrations technically fall below strict densely packed wooden enclosures.
moisture-rich open-air intracellular ions.
Furthermore, the essential oil from While humidity reaching up to 84 percent and ambient Coupled regulatory limits, their presence in fresh produce highlights a systemic storage vulnerability.
confinement of chemical sampling primarily to the final retail distribution tier.
By solely evaluating the outdated storage of massive volumes of actively end-point of the consumer supply chain, the exact respiring onions in solid, heavy wooden boxes chronological onset of fungal inoculation remains completely lacking structural ventilation holes.
Onions For are living botanical tissues that continue to respire identifying the co-occurrence of another critical post-harvest, consuming oxygen and releasing carbon mycotoxin contamination like Ochratoxin AAiwhich is dioxide alongside significant metabolic heat and water also a primary, severe concern in global agriculture This severe structural restriction ensures the and human nephrotoxicityAican be conducted to significantly expand the comprehensive toxicological Consequently, the metabolic moisture released by the profile of these specific tropical spices.
Ochratoxin A, onions condenses on the interior walls of the wooden box, creating a highly localized microclimate with carbonarius and Penicillium extremely high water activity directly within the different thermodynamic triggers than aflatoxins and geometric center of the storage container.
observational cross-sectional framework is the strict The causative biophysical mechanism driving this co-contaminates by Aspergillus presenting a synergistic toxicological threat to human renal function.
Furthermore, strongly mandates a maximum permissible threshold of exactly 15 parts per billion for Aflatoxin B1 and 20 to accurately parts per billion for total aflatoxins combined.
identify aflatoxin contamination in spices taken While non-parametric directly from raw post-harvest settings, logistical correlation definitively indicates a strong positive middlemen, large-scale warehousing facilities, and relationship between elevated ambient retail humidity final household culinary settings to accurately map and subsequent fungal toxin loads, the primary, the entire agricultural trajectory.
Establishing a underlying mechanistic driver is clearly the deeply longitudinal tracking methodology will unequivocally trapped water activity existing inside non-vacuum pinpoint exact contamination vectors and determine whether the primary fungal proliferation occurs during methodologies, intended to improve visual shelf appeal initial farm-level drying, intermediate transport, or and prevent external tampering, paradoxically create entirely within the retail microclimate.
Additionally, isolated thermodynamic incubation chambers that integrating advanced molecular biology techniques, directly facilitate explosive fungal pathogenesis.
The specifically quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction impermeable polymer wraps prevent the essential evaporation of intrinsic moisture, forcefully holding These quantification would allow future investigators to accurately quantify the total fungal biomass present within the matrix, providing a more robust correlation between visible mold presence, viable spore counts, and ultimate toxicological output.
To definitively mitigate the severe public health Conclusion instances of hepatocellular carcinoma and acute This comprehensive toxicological study provides hepatic failure in vulnerable populations, it is a highly highly critical, analytically validated evidence that critical regulatory recommendation for modern retail environmental thermodynamic variables, specifically supermarkets to strictly overhaul their internal trapped ambient temperature and enclosed humidity, packaging protocols.
Supermarkets must rapidly play an undeniably crucial and deterministic role in transition toward utilizing semi-permeable, micro- promoting Aspergillus species to synthesize highly perforated packaging materials or integrate active moisture-scavenging desiccants within the sealed particularly within equatorial culinary spices.
Based environment to forcefully reduce the internal water on the rigorous chromatographic testing of the Furthermore, collected samples, peppers packaged in completely strictly improve automated temperature and humidity sealed, non-breathable plastic .
oded explicitly as directly within the enclosed storage areas and display hazardous levels of Aflatoxin B1 at 45.
35 parts per shelves of highly susceptible spice commodities.
Only billion and a total aflatoxin load calculated at 99.
through a synchronized combination of appropriate C.
This mycotoxicological contamination is far beyond the environmental thermodynamics can the commercial strict legal safety limits stipulated by the Indonesian food supply chain effectively sever the contamination National Agency of Drug and Food Control, which pathways of toxigenic fungi in tropical climates.
References