Vol. 9(2): 190-201, May 2021

DOI: https://doi.org/10.23960/jsl29190-201

Jurnal Sylva Lestari

P-ISSN: 2339-0913
E-ISSN: 2549-5747

Journal homepage: https://jurnal.fp.unila.ac.id/index.php/JHT

Full Length Research Article

Effects on Morphology and Chemical Properties of Indonesian Bamboos by
Carbonization
Sehwi Park1, Min Lee1,*, Fauzi Febrianto2, Nyoman Jaya Wistara2
1

Forest Products Department, National Institute of Forest Science. 57, Hoegi-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Department of Forest Products, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, IPB University. Kampus IPB Dramaga 16680, Bogor,
Indonesia
*
Corresponding Author. E-mail address: mlee81@korea.kr
2

ARTICLE HISTORY:
Received:20 March 2021
Peer review completed: 3 April 2021
Received in revised form: 22 April 2021
Accepted: 30 April 2021

KEYWORDS:
Bamboo charcoal
Carbonization
Indonesian bamboo
Inorganic content
FTIR

© 2021 The Author(s). Published by
Department of Forestry, Faculty of
Agriculture, University of Lampung in
collaboration with Indonesia Network for
Agroforestry Education (INAFE).
This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC license:
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync/4.0/.

ABSTRACT
A simple carbonization technique was applied to utilize Indonesian
bamboo resources. Several bamboo species as betung (Dendrocalamus
asper), andong (Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea (Steudel) Widjaja),
hitam (G. atroviolacea), tali (G. apus), kuning (Bambusa vulgaris var.
striata), and ampel bamboo (B. Vulgaris Scharad) were selected for
carbonization. Carbonization was conducted using a laboratory electrical
furnace at 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1,000 1,000°C. The morphological and
chemical properties of bamboos before and after carbonization were then
analyzed. Betung, hitam, tali, kuning, and ampel bamboos had type IV
structure which was the most common bamboo structure, while andong
bambo had type III structure. Cracks in the fiber bundle were observed and
became more visible with the increase of carbonization temperature. The
pH showed a similar trend in all species. As a result of the electric
conductivity test, carbonized andong and kuning bamboo showed higher
value due to rich inorganic content. Kuning bamboo has a high value of
potassium and silica content, which are suitable for use as fertilizer. The
chemical structure transition of bamboo during the carbonization process
was analyzed by FTIR spectroscopy, and significant changes were
observed between 400 and 600°C. These results could be useful
fundamental data for promoting high value-added bamboo utilization and
improving research in Indonesian bamboo.

1. Introduction
Bamboo has been recognized as an important forest product of poor rural communities. It
was called “poor man’s timber” or “minor forest produce” for a long time (Buckingham et al.
2011). In Indonesia, bamboo occupies an area of 2 million ha, which is 5% of the world’s bamboo
population, consisting of 33 genera and 160 species. Bamboo has played a significant role in daily
life in Indonesia. It has been used for architecture, household goods, furniture, musical
instruments, textiles, and mats after simple physical processing (Febrianto et al. 2012). Timber
resources occupy only 5% within Indonesian forests, while non-timber forest products account for
95%. In particular, bamboo is a significant part of non-timber forest products. Bamboo is an
herbaceous plant with a very rapid growth rate. It can be harvested after 3 to 4 years and does not
require expensive investment for production and maintenance. Therefore, bamboo has been

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recognized as a potential resource to solve the problems of existing biomass resources with
sustainability and high profitability. Bamboo is processed into various products such as charcoal,
bioethanol, and biodiesel by different treatments (Asada et al. 2002; Sun et al. 2011). At one time,
bamboo was simply used for poor man, but now it is called timber of wise man with the infinite
possibility (INBAR 2010).
Although bamboo is an essential material in Indonesia, the usage of bamboo has been
steadily decreased due to socio-economic reasons such as settlement plans, large-scale agriculture,
forestry enterprises, and ranching in the large cities (Nair et al. 2021). Household items using
bamboo have been replaced by new materials such as plastics on account of the overall
improvement of living life. Recently, Indonesia’s export of bamboo resources has been gradually
declined behind Vietnam, Myanmar, and India (UN Comtrade 2014).
Nevertheless, the Indonesian government still regards bamboo as an important agroforestry
product. Under the particular goal of promoting bamboo’s usage in daily life and replacing wood
resources, the bamboo industry has been developed around Central Java, West Java, East Java,
Bali, and Yogyakarta. Several strategies have been established to improve the social images of
bamboo and make bamboo more competitive products (Hardiani et al. 2014). The strategy could
be summarized as promoting the use of bamboo and establishing the bamboo industry which local
community participation. At first, the process of increasing market value on bamboo materials
should be carried out. Currently, the bamboo industry is mainly concentrated on simple processing
because most of the regions in Indonesia are lag behind except big cities. It is essential to make
high value-added bamboo through simple development. Various studies on bamboo have been
carried out, such as the use of bamboo for oriented strand boards (Febrianto et al. 2015; Maulana
et al. 2018) and nanomaterials (Jang et al. 2013). Although Indonesia is the third-largest bamboo
growing region after India and China, research and industrial investment have not been done to a
greater extend. In addition, incentives for the local community involved in the bamboo site should
be increased for the sustainability of bamboo resources.
In the past, the use of bamboo charcoal has been confined to fuels for household, iron
melting, and fertilizer (Nurhayati et al. 2006). Currently, new utilizations of bamboo charcoal were
discovered, and various products have been on the market. For example, bamboo charcoal has
been considered to replace activated carbon. This is useful to dyeing and wastewater purification
processes in paper mills due to its low production cost (Hameed et al. 2007). Bamboo charcoal is
used to adjust the pleasing environment in daily life. When cook rice or boil water, adding bamboo
charcoal can increase the taste and quality of water by soluble minerals (Park 2007).
It was recognized that carbonization processing was selected as a high-value and simple
method for the underdeveloped regions of the Indonesian community. In the previous work,
several promising bamboo species from Indonesia have been selected for carbonization by simple
carbonization processing, and the physical, morphological, and fuel properties of the bamboo
charcoal were evaluated (Park et al. 2018, 2019, 2020). In this study, the investigations of chemical
properties were performed to understand the carbonization mechanism of Indonesian bamboo.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
Betung (Dendrocalamus asper), andong (Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea (Steudel)
Widjaja), hitam (G. atroviolacea), tali (G. apus), kuning (Bambusa vulgaris var. striata), and
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ampel (B. Vulgaris Scharad) bamboos were selected in this study. These bamboo species were 45 years old, collected from the experimental bamboo plantation of IPB University, West Java,
Indonesia (6° 20’ 21” S, 106° 33’ 58” E). Detailed information on the raw materials used in this
study is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. General information of bamboo materials
Parameter
Node length (cm)
Diameter (cm)
Thickness (mm)
Density (g·cm-3)

Betung
37.1
15.5
16.5
0.56

Andong
42.5
14.0
22.4
0.71

Species
Hitam
Tali
59.5
34.4
12.1
8.3
12.6
10.9
0.71
0.60

Kuning
24.3
8.1
9.7
0.67

Ampel
33.3
7.9
17.4
0.77

2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Sampling
During the procurement of the samples, the second node of bamboo culm from the ground
level was taken and then air-dried for 3 months. The 10 strips of 25 mm widths were prepared by
cutting nodes of bamboo according to the diagram shown in Fig. 1. Strips were cut at 40 mm
intervals in the fiber direction and divided into 6 specimens. The specimens are almost similar in
structure due to the homogeneity of the top and the bottom division of the bamboo stem. Sixty
specimens were prepared for each bamboo species. Ten specimens were collected from each strip,
and they were carbonized at different target temperatures.

Fig. 1. Diagram of sample preparation and visual appearance of carbonized bamboo samples.
2.2.2. Carbonization of bamboo
The samples were prepared with a size of 25 mm wide and 40 mm long. Following the
methods of Park et al. (2009), the samples were wrapped in paper and aluminum foil and placed
in a small rectangular heat-resistant container with a cover to prevent oxidation during the
carbonization process. The target temperature was varied from 200 to 1,000°C, and samples were
carbonized in a laboratory electrical furnace (TST BT-F724, Korea). Carbonization was carried
out for 2 h at the target temperature. At the end of the carbonization process, carbonized samples

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were taken out of the electric furnace and cooling down for several hours at room temperature.
The carbonized bamboo samples were pulverized and sorted into 150 mesh sieves.
2.2.3. Evaluation of morphological properties
Sample preparation was conducted according to the method described by Kwon et al. (2006).
The cross-section of the raw bamboo sample was prepared with a sliding microtome (WSL lab
microtome, WSL Startseite, Swiss) after softening it in water for 2 weeks. After the carbonization,
the specimens were sliced to 5 mm × 5 mm (radial × tangential), and the central part was broken
to obtain a clean and parallel cut surface. These specimens were coated with gold and palladium
and then observed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM, COXEM-30, COXEM, Korea).
2.2.4. Evaluation chemical properties
The hydrogen ion concentration (pH) was determined according to TAPPI 435 method
(TAPPI 2006). The mixed solution was prepared from 1 g oven-dried powder sample and 100 ml
distilled water. The solution was then boiled for 10 minutes and cooled down to room temperature.
The pH was measured with a pH meter (HM-30R, SECHANG, Korea).
The electric conductivity of raw and carbonized samples was measured according to KS M
ISO 6587 (KSA 2020). The electric conductivity indicates the strength of electrolyte ions in the
solution and is expressed as a reciprocal of resistance. As inorganic content in the solution
increased, the electric conductivity increased. The mixed solution of 1g oven-dried sample powder
and 100 ml distilled water at room temperature was measured by an electric conductivity analyzer
(CM-30R, TOA DKK, Japan). The electric conductivity of the solution as distilled water, clean
tap water, and seawater was 0.5 µm.cm-1, 50 µm.cm-1, and 53 µm.cm-1, respectively.
The inorganic contents of raw and carbonized bamboo samples were determined using an
energy dispersive x-ray analyzer (410-EDS, Bruker, Germany). The EDS analyzer was operated
by the interaction between sources of x-ray stimulation and unique electromagnetic emission
spectra of elements in samples. The samples processed to a size of 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm
(radial × tangential × longitudinal) were coated with gold. After setting the electric stimulation of
the equipment to 10 kV, the contents of silicon, potassium, calcium, and magnesium were
measured.
Since all compounds of organic and inorganic molecules show different energy absorption
patterns in the infrared region, a unique spectrum appears according to respective materials. It is
used for quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis of material or components through Fourier
transform spectroscopy (FTIR). The FTIR spectrophotometer (Nicolet 6700, Thermo Scientific,
USA) was used to observe the chemical structure changes of raw and carbonized bamboo samples.
The spectrum was obtained at the mid-infrared region of 4,000 to 650 cm-1. Spectral analysis was
conducted by using OMNIC 9.2 software.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Morphological Properties
The vascular bundle that is the main structure of bamboo was investigated to represent the
cross-section anatomical characteristics of bamboo species in this study. SEM images of
carbonized bamboo samples were shown in Fig. 2. Grosser et al. (1971) classified the types of the
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bamboo vascular bundle into four types. Type I consists of only the vascular center of the vascular
system, and type II consists of the vascular center of the vascular system in which the rear wall
cells adjacent to the protoxylem are expanded. Type III is composed of one fiber located in the
center of the tube and the inner direction. Type IV takes the form of fiber in the outer direction in
the form of type III. As a result, vascular bundle type IV was observed at Indonesian bamboo
species, excluding andong bamboo.

Fig. 2. The SEM images of bamboo samples according to carbonization temperature.

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Andong bamboo mainly consisted of type III and rarely in type IV. The fiber bundles located
in the bottom part of the vascular bundle seemed to form a crescent shape. On the other, the fiber
bundles located in the upper part of the vascular bundle were slightly different depending on
species. The fiber bundles of tali and kuning bamboos were often observed to be squashed round
shape. Liese (1980) observed the same tendency in Indonesian bamboo. Even though 40% or more
reduction of bamboo volume occurred during carbonization, the bamboo structure was still
preserved. The elements in the vascular bundle, such as vessel, xylem, and intercellular space,
were maintained. No particular trend was observed in all bamboo species used in this study.
However, it was found that the tali bamboo has a somewhat smaller vascular center than other
species. In addition, with the increase of carbonization temperature, the fiber bundles of betung
and kuning bamboos were often cracked or depressed. It was confirmed that the starch contained
in the parenchyma cell did not appear to be lost. It was preserved as a hardened form.
3.2. Chemical Properties
3.2.1. pH and electric conductivity
The pH and electric conductivity of carbonized bamboo samples were shown in Fig. 3. It
was observed that control bamboo samples changed from acid to alkaline as increasing
carbonization temperature. The pH is expressed as a logarithm of the number of grams of hydrogen
ions contained in a liquid. It was confirmed that hydrogen was discharged in various forms during
pyrolysis that brought about the increase of pH value. The trend of increasing pH was classified
into two types. The rapid changes from 200 to 600°C carbonization occurred on betung, andong,
tali, and kuning bamboos. This phenomenon seems to be related to the increase of ashes due to the
intensive decomposition of bamboo components during the carbonization process (Park et al.
2020). Ampel bamboo showed a similar tendency, but the increase interval was slightly shorter.
The pH of hitam bamboo steadily increased. At the carbonization temperature of 1,000°C, the pH
of carbonized bamboos reached 9 or more. At the carbonization temperature of 600°C, the pH of
all specimens was above 7, which is considered as the minimum carbonization temperature for
using carbonized bamboo as a neutralizer. Park (2007) reported that the pH of carbonized moso
bamboo, which is used in Northeast Asia, ranged from 6 to 8.5. The pH of Indonesian carbonized
bamboo is generally higher than that of carbonized Moso bamboo.
12

1.0
Hitam

Kuning

Ampel

Tali

Electric conductivity (ms/cm)

Andong

Betung

pH

10

8

6

4

0.8

Andong

Hitam

Kuning

Ampel

Tali

Betung

0.6
0.4

0.2
0.0

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

0

Carbonization temp. (°C)

200

400

600

800

Carbonization temp. (°C)

Fig. 3. The pH and electric conductivity of carbonized bamboo samples.
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The electric conductivity is an index of the strength of electrolyte ions in solution and is
expressed in terms of inverse of resistance. Therefore, the greater the number of electrolyte ions
in the solution, the higher is the electric conductivity. Bamboo was known to contain a large
amount of water-soluble inorganic substances, and an electric conductivity test was conducted to
compare that Park (2007). Moreover, the parenchyma cell of bamboo has abundant starch.
However, starch was assumed to have little effect on electric conductivity because it was melted
or burned out during the carbonization process. It was observed that the electric conductivity of
all bamboo species increased until carbonization temperature of 800°C, and then slightly decreased
after carbonized at 800°C. It is highly related to the increase of ash content, which is mainly
composed of inorganic matter. In addition, at 800 and 1,000°C carbonization, the amount of silica
content dissolved in the solution was not significant due to the hardening process. Especially,
andong and kuning bamboo samples seemed to have a relatively higher inorganic content, which
may be attributed to the high inorganic content observed by the EDX test. The electric conductivity
of betung, hitam, tali, and ampel bamboos showed the same tendency within the range of 0 to
1,000°C.
3.2.2. Inorganic contents
The inorganic substance of carbonized bamboo was investigated. The inorganic substance is
one of the main valuation matters for biomass resources. Since it is possible to supply nutrients
that help plant growth, it increases the potential utilization as a fertilizer. However, the inorganic
substance has a negative effect on fuel use due to the decrease of fixed carbon (Basu 2018). The
content changes of potassium, silica, magnesium, and calcium according to carbonization
temperature are shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5.
6.0

Potassium

5.0

Andong

Hitam

Kuning

Ampel

Tali

Betung

4.0
3.0
2.0

1.0
0.0
0

200

400

600

800

1,000

Carbonization temp. (°C)

Fig. 4. The potassium (left) and silica (right) of carbonized bamboo samples.

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1.8

1.8
Hitam

Kuning

Ampel

Tali

1.5

Betung

1.2

Magnesium

Calcium

1.5

Andong

0.9

Andong

Hitam

Kuning

Ampel

Tali

Betung

1.2
0.9

0.6

0.6

0.3

0.3
0.0

0.0
0

200

400

600

800

0

1,000

200

400

600

800

1,000

Carbonization temp. (°C)

Carbonization temp. (°C)

Fig. 5. The calcium (left) and magnesium (right) of carbonized bamboo samples.
The potassium content was the highest rate among inorganic content in this study. Moreover,
it was observed to be abundant in andong and kuning bamboo. Potassium content increased until
carbonization temperature of 600°C and then decreased as increasing temperature. The other
bamboo samples showed a similar change tendency. The potassium content in other species was
small, and it was hard to find out significant change according to carbonization temperature. The
highest value of silica content was detected in kuning bamboo. The other bamboo species had
similar silica contents. The magnesium and calcium content of betung bamboo showed higher
contents than others. The other species showed a higher rate of magnesium and calcium after
carbonization at 400°C. On the other hand, betung bamboo represented the higher rate after
carbonization at 600°C. Ampel bamboo, which had the higher calorific value in previous studies
(Park et al. 2019), was confirmed to have a lower content of inorganic content. Hitam and tali
bamboo showed low value regardless of carbonization temperature and type of inorganic substance,
and the cause is analyzed to be due to differences in species.
3.2.3. FTIR Spectroscopy
The ATR-FTIR spectroscopy was performed to investigate the change in functional groups
of bamboo components, and the spectrums of all bamboo samples were shown in Fig. 6-8.
Information on the binding structure assigned to detected peaks was according to Table 2.

Fig. 6. FTIR spectra of betung (left) and andong (right) carbonized bamboo samples.

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Fig. 7. FTIR spectra of hitam (left) and tali (right) carbonized bamboo samples.

Fig. 8. FTIR spectra of kuning (left) and ampel (right) carbonized bamboo samples.
Table 2. Band positions and assignments in the infrared spectra of carbonized bamboo samples
Band position
Band assignment
Range (℃)
(cm-1)
3346-3332 O-H stretching (hydrogen bond)
0-200
2896-2891 C-H stretching in methyl- and methylene group
0-200
2359
Weak additional band, CH3 of alkane
0-1000
1732-1727 C=O stretching in unconjugated ketone
0-600
1602-1601 C=C stretching mode unconjugated alkene
0-600
1510-1506 C-C in aromatic skeletal vibration
0-200
1455-1453 C-H deformation in methyl- and methylene group
0-200
C-H in-plane deformation with aromatic ring
1422-1421
0-200
stretching
1367
In-plane deformation vibration of phenolic-OH
0-600
1323-1317 C-O stretching of syringyl ring
0-200
1158-1155 C-O-C stretching in pyranose rings
0-200
1031-1023 C-H in-plane bending mode of phenylalanine
0-200
896
C-H stretching out of plane of aromatic ring
0-200
832
β(CH) ring, γ(CC) with aromatic ring
0-200
Source: Chen et al. (2010); Muller et al. (2009).

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Various peaks were found in all of the raw bamboo samples. For example, the major peaks
which contribute to cellulose concentrated at n(C-O) are around 1,100 cm-1, and n(OH) of hydroxyl
groups is around 3,300 cm-1. Furthermore, the aromatic peak of lignin between 1,400 cm-1 and
1,700 cm-1 were detected. The results showed that the interval of carbonization temperature
remarkably changed the chemical structure of bamboo, and the tendency of all species was very
similar. Most of the measured peaks of raw bamboo samples were remained up to 200°C. Some
peaks related to cellulose were rarely found at 400°C. At 600°C, it was challenging to detect peaks
associated with lignin. The flat spectrum curve with most peaks completely disappeared was
observed at 800 and 1000°C. According to results, the carbonization temperature of 400 and 600°C
is regarded as a critical change point of bamboo charcoal. The tendency of the spectrum curves in
this study is similar to Chen et al. (2015). They studied the carbonization mechanism of bamboo
in the range of 300 – 700°C and mentioned that most bonds were disappeared at 400°C.
4. Conclusions
Fundamental data of carbonized bamboo manufactured by simple carbonization technique
were collected in this study. The carbonized Indonesian bamboo is expected to be advantageous
for soil improvement and water purification due to its high inorganic content and electric
conductivity. Furthermore, carbonized bamboo could be simply applied in an underdeveloped area
that requires water supply facilities. The results of the carbonization mechanism on bamboo
charcoal can be used to establish a suitable manufacturing plan. Although this study is in the
foundational research stage, it is hoped that this study will contribute to the research activity and
high value-added projects on the utilization of Indonesian bamboo.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by a research fellowship program through the National Institute of
Forest Science (NIFoS), Republic of Korea.
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