International Journal of
Humanities, Education, and Social Sciences

e-ISSN : 3026-0892
p-ISSN : 3026-1422
Index: Harvard, Boston,
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Scilit, Semantic, Google, etc

https://doi.org/10.58578/IJHESS.v3i3.6460

Applying the DPSIR Framework to Evaluate Factors Affecting
Wastewater Collection and Treatment Policy Mechanisms
in Hanoi City

Trang Mai Tran
Institute of Vietnam and World Economy, Viet Nam
tranmaitrang610@gmail.com

Article Info:
Submitted:
Revised:
Accepted: Published:
May 22, 2025 Jun 19, 2025 Jul 1, 2025 Jul 6, 2025

Abstract
The rapid urbanization of Hanoi has exacerbated existing challenges in
wastewater management, with less than 30% of urban wastewater currently
being treated despite ongoing legislative reforms and the adoption of PublicPrivate Partnership (PPP) models. This study employs the DPSIR (Driver–
Pressure–State–Impact–Response) framework to systematically analyze the
underlying factors influencing wastewater collection and treatment policies in
Hanoi. Using a qualitative methodology that combines document analysis with
expert interviews, the research identifies major drivers such as population
growth and industrialization, alongside pressures including outdated
infrastructure and rising pollution levels. The analysis highlights critical issues
such as legal inconsistencies, insufficient financial frameworks, and institutional
fragmentation that impede effective policy implementation and the successful
deployment of PPPs. In response, the study proposes actionable
recommendations, including legal harmonization, financial model restructuring,
institutional capacity-building, and increased community engagement. These
findings offer valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders in Hanoi and
other rapidly urbanizing cities in developing countries seeking to establish
more sustainable and effective wastewater management systems.
Volume 3, Issue 3, 2025; Pages 806-822
https://ejournal.yasin-alsys.org/IJHESS
IJHESS Journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

Trang Mai Tran

Keywords: DPSIR Framework; Wastewater Management; Public-Private
Partnership; Environmental Policy; Hanoi; Sustainable Infrastructure

Introduction
Urbanization poses significant challenges to environmental management, especially
in rapidly developing cities. Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, is facing profound pressure
from unprecedented urban growth, industrial expansion, and demographic shifts. By 2030,
the city’s population is expected to surpass 10 million, with a parallel increase in domestic,
commercial, and industrial wastewater generation. Despite national and municipal
commitments to sustainable urban development, the current wastewater collection and
treatment infrastructure in Hanoi remains alarmingly inadequate. As of 2024, only 28.8% of
domestic wastewater is properly collected and treated, leaving the majority discharged
untreated into rivers, lakes, and canals, leading to widespread water pollution and serious
public health risks (Hanoi People’s Committee, 2024).
The environmental degradation caused by untreated wastewater has become a
critical obstacle to Hanoi's sustainable development goals. Contaminated water bodies such
as the To Lich, Kim Nguu, and Nhue Rivers are not only ecological hazards but also
reduce urban livability, impair public health, and undermine the city’s attractiveness to
investors and tourists. Addressing this challenge requires significant investment in
wastewater infrastructure, yet Hanoi, like many developing cities, faces constraints in public
financing.
To overcome financial limitations, the government has promoted Public-Private
Partnership (PPP) as an innovative mechanism to mobilize private sector investment for
wastewater infrastructure. The PPP model, widely adopted in transportation and energy
sectors in Vietnam, remains underdeveloped in the wastewater sector due to regulatory
ambiguities, financial unviability, and governance fragmentation. Complex legal
frameworks, misaligned regulations between the PPP Law, Environmental Protection Law,
and Land Law, combined with low wastewater tariffs, have deterred private investors.
In response to this multifaceted challenge, this study applies the DPSIR (DriverPressure-State-Impact-Response) framework to evaluate the systemic factors affecting
wastewater management policy mechanisms in Hanoi. The DPSIR model provides a

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structured lens to analyze how socio-economic drivers and environmental pressures
influence the current infrastructure state, generate impacts on health and ecosystems, and
inform policy responses. By integrating DPSIR analysis with a focus on PPP mechanisms,
this research aims to uncover critical policy gaps and propose actionable recommendations.
The findings are intended not only to support Hanoi’s transition toward sustainable
wastewater management but also to contribute to the broader discourse on urban water
governance in rapidly developing cities globally.

Literature Review
Urban wastewater management has emerged as one of the most critical
environmental challenges facing cities in the Global South. This is largely attributed to the
unprecedented pace of urbanization, demographic expansion, and industrial growth,
compounded by chronic underinvestment in infrastructure and weak regulatory
enforcement. A growing body of literature highlights that in many developing countries,
wastewater treatment infrastructure is either insufficient, outdated, or completely absent in
peri-urban and informal settlements (World Bank, 2022; ADB, 2021). This situation leads
to widespread discharge of untreated or partially treated wastewater into natural water
bodies, resulting in significant environmental degradation and adverse public health
outcomes.
In the Southeast Asian context, studies by Nguyen et al. (2020) and Le and Tran
(2019) reveal that Vietnam’s wastewater management policies have historically lagged
behind the pace of urban expansion. The country’s wastewater governance framework is
characterized by fragmentation across multiple levels of government, overlapping
mandates, and inconsistent regulatory standards. Nguyen et al. emphasize that despite the
enactment of progressive legislation such as the Law on Environmental Protection (2020)
and the Law on Water Resources (2012), actual implementation remains hampered by
funding gaps, unclear institutional responsibilities, and limited technical capacity at the
municipal level.
Internationally, successful models of urban wastewater management often rely on
integrated policy frameworks and innovative financing mechanisms, particularly through
Public-Private Partnerships (PPP). For example, Singapore’s holistic water management
strategy, known as the "Four National Taps," integrates wastewater reuse (NEWater) with

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strong regulatory control and financial sustainability through full-cost pricing (Tan et al.,
2019). Similarly, Amsterdam’s decentralized yet highly coordinated wastewater management
system leverages stakeholder participation and smart monitoring technologies (Bakker et
al., 2020). These models demonstrate that effective wastewater management requires not
only physical infrastructure but also robust governance structures, transparent financing
mechanisms, and active community engagement.
The PPP model has gained prominence as a viable approach to bridge the
infrastructure financing gap in wastewater management, especially in developing countries.
Studies by the OECD (2020) and ADB (2021) highlight that well-structured PPPs can
enhance efficiency, improve service quality, and accelerate infrastructure delivery. However,
they also caution that PPPs are not a panacea. Their success depends heavily on a
conducive legal framework, well-defined risk-sharing mechanisms, and the government’s
ability to manage complex contractual arrangements. In the context of Vietnam, the
application of PPP in wastewater management is still nascent and faces significant barriers,
including regulatory inconsistencies, low tariffs that undermine financial viability, and a lack
of standardized contracts tailored to the wastewater sector (Nguyen et al., 2020; Hanoi
People’s Committee, 2023).
From an environmental governance perspective, the DPSIR (Driver-PressureState-Impact-Response) framework offers a valuable tool for structuring the complex
interrelationships between socio-economic dynamics and environmental outcomes.
Originally developed by the European Environment Agency (EEA, 1999), DPSIR has been
applied in various environmental domains, including water management, biodiversity
conservation, and climate change adaptation. Its application allows for the systematic
identification of causal chains linking human activities (drivers) to environmental pressures,
changes in the state of ecosystems, resultant impacts, and the policy responses designed to
mitigate these issues.
In water resource management, the DPSIR framework has been successfully
employed in urban settings such as Shanghai (Li et al., 2021) to examine the pressures of
industrialization on water quality and the effectiveness of policy interventions. Similarly, in
Singapore, Tan et al. (2019) utilize DPSIR to evaluate how urban planning, regulatory
frameworks, and public awareness contribute to sustainable water governance. These case
studies underline that DPSIR is particularly effective in highlighting the feedback loops

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between environmental degradation and policy effectiveness, offering a structured
methodology for diagnosing systemic weaknesses and formulating targeted solutions.
However, a critical review of the existing literature reveals a significant gap in
applying the DPSIR framework to analyze wastewater management within the context of
PPP in Vietnam, particularly in Hanoi. Most existing studies focus either on technical
aspects of wastewater treatment (e.g., treatment technologies, network designs) or on
financial and legal analyses of PPP projects in general infrastructure sectors like
transportation. There is a conspicuous lack of integrative studies that combine
environmental governance models like DPSIR with institutional and financial analyses
specific to wastewater management. This gap limits the ability of policymakers to fully
comprehend how socio-economic drivers, infrastructural pressures, and governance
shortcomings interact to influence the current state of wastewater services in Hanoi.
Moreover, while the Vietnamese government has enacted significant legislative
reforms—such as the PPP Law (2020) and the Environmental Protection Law (2020)—the
literature indicates that the translation of these laws into practical, enforceable policies
remains problematic. Issues such as inconsistent tariff-setting mechanisms, unclear risksharing arrangements, and the absence of performance-based contracts persist (ADB, 2021;
Nguyen et al., 2020). Without addressing these structural issues, the potential of PPP to
contribute meaningfully to wastewater management remains largely untapped.
In summary, the literature suggests that achieving sustainable wastewater
management in Hanoi requires a multidimensional approach that goes beyond technical
solutions. It must integrate financial viability, legal coherence, institutional capacitybuilding, and community participation. The DPSIR framework provides a suitable lens for
this comprehensive analysis by capturing the dynamic interplay between environmental
conditions and policy mechanisms. This study therefore, contributes to filling a critical gap
by applying DPSIR to evaluate how Hanoi’s socio-economic growth, infrastructural
limitations, environmental challenges, and policy responses—particularly through PPP—
shape the effectiveness of wastewater management.

Methodology
This research adopts a qualitative methodological framework that combines the
DPSIR (Driver–Pressure–State–Impact–Response) analytical model with case study

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approaches and stakeholder-based data collection. The DPSIR framework is particularly
suitable for examining complex environmental management issues because it enables a
structured

analysis

of

the

interactions

between

socio-economic

development,

environmental degradation, and governance responses. This methodological choice aligns
with previous studies that have successfully applied DPSIR in urban water management
contexts, such as Singapore (Tan et al., 2019) and Amsterdam (Bakker et al., 2020).
Data collection for this study was conducted through multiple channels to ensure
triangulation and robustness. Firstly, secondary data were extensively gathered from
government reports, legal documents, and planning frameworks. Key documents included
the Hanoi Wastewater Management Plan (2024–2030), the National Strategy on
Environmental Protection (2020–2030), the Law on Environmental Protection (2020), and
the Law on Public-Private Partnership (2020). Project-specific documentation from major
wastewater treatment initiatives, such as the Yen Xa Wastewater Treatment Plant and Bac
Thang Long Plant, was also reviewed to capture project-level dynamics. In addition,
academic publications, reports from international organizations (e.g., World Bank, ADB,
OECD), and technical consultancy studies provided further contextual grounding.
Primary data were collected through 25 semi-structured interviews conducted
between April 2023 and February 2024. Participants were purposively sampled to represent
key stakeholder groups, including government officials from Hanoi's Department of
Construction, Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Department of
Finance, and Hanoi Drainage Company. Private sector stakeholders involved in existing or
planned PPP wastewater projects were also interviewed, along with representatives from
environmental NGOs, urban planners, and academic experts specializing in environmental
governance and infrastructure financing. The interviews explored participants' perspectives
on policy effectiveness, legal barriers, financial constraints, institutional coordination, and
community involvement in wastewater management. Each interview lasted between 60 and
90 minutes, was recorded with consent, and transcribed verbatim for analysis.
Data analysis was structured around the DPSIR model. Thematic coding was
performed using NVivo 14 software, allowing for systematic organization of data into the
five DPSIR components. For example, statements related to population growth, industrial
expansion, or international climate commitments were categorized under Drivers.
Information on wastewater generation rates, pollution incidents, or infrastructure

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bottlenecks was coded as Pressures or State. Health impacts, economic losses, and
environmental degradation were mapped under Impacts, while policy instruments, financial
mechanisms, and governance interventions were categorized as Responses. Crossvalidation between documentary analysis and interview data ensured the reliability and
validity of the findings.
By adopting this mixed-method qualitative approach grounded in DPSIR, the
research not only identifies surface-level challenges but also unpacks the deeper structural
and systemic factors that hinder effective wastewater management in Hanoi. This
methodology offers a holistic understanding, providing a strong empirical basis for the
policy recommendations presented in the later sections.

Results and Discussion
The application of the DPSIR framework to Hanoi’s wastewater management
reveals a highly interconnected web of socio-economic, environmental, legal, and
institutional factors. This framework provides a comprehensive understanding of how
long-term drivers and immediate pressures contribute to systemic weaknesses in
wastewater infrastructure, exacerbating environmental degradation and posing significant
socio-economic risks. The analysis is based on a triangulation of documentary evidence and
25 in-depth interviews with stakeholders, coded and analyzed using NVivo software.
1. Drivers (D)
The primary drivers influencing Hanoi’s wastewater challenges include rapid
urbanization, robust economic growth, increasing demographic pressures, and Vietnam’s
international environmental commitments.
The NVivo coding results indicate that urbanization emerged as the most
frequently referenced driver, accounting for 36% of coded segments under this theme (see
Table 1). Interviewees repeatedly emphasized that Hanoi’s spatial expansion, coupled with
unplanned development in peri-urban areas, has severely outpaced wastewater
infrastructure planning.

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Table 1: NVivo Coding Summary – Drivers
Theme

Refere
nces

Percentag
e (%)

Urbanization

96

36

Economic Growth

71

26

Demographics
Environmental
Commitments

53

20

48

18

Key Phrases Extracted
"Urban growth outpaces planning", "Peripheral
areas lack sewers"
"Industrial zones discharge untreated", "Service
sector increases load"
"Population inflow from rural areas"
"Pressure from Paris Agreement", "SDG 6
compliance"

Economic growth, particularly the expansion of industrial zones and commercial
centers, was cited by 26% of respondents as a key driver of wastewater generation. The
combined demographic surge and pressure to meet Sustainable Development Goals (SDG
6) further intensify these challenges.

2. Pressures (P)
These drivers translate into direct pressures on Hanoi’s water environment and
infrastructure. The most prominent pressures include a surge in wastewater generation,
overloaded sewer systems, severe pollution of urban waterways, and spatial constraints for
new treatment facilities.
NVivo analysis highlighted “inadequate sewer connectivity” as the most commonly
cited pressure, mentioned in 42% of relevant coding nodes (Table 2). Respondents noted
that many districts, especially in the northern and western suburbs, remain disconnected
from the central sewer system, forcing reliance on septic tanks.
Table 2: NVivo Word Frequency – Top Pressure Keywords
Rank
Keyword
1
Sewer connectivity
2
Pollution load

Frequency Sample Quotes
87
"No sewer in new urban areas"
72
"Rivers black and dead"

3
4

Infrastructure gap
Overloaded treatment

65
58

"Pipes don’t reach households"
"Plants run below capacity due to sewer gaps"

5

Land acquisition

51

"Difficult to secure land for plants"

A recurring issue is the severe pollution of rivers such as the To Lich and Kim
Nguu, where respondents describe them as “black and dead rivers.” Additionally,
challenges in land acquisition for treatment plants were frequently noted due to dense
urbanization.

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3. State (S)
The current state of Hanoi’s wastewater infrastructure is characterized by
inadequate treatment capacity and uneven service distribution. The city treats only 28.8%
of its domestic wastewater, with most treatment concentrated in central urban areas.
Peripheral districts rely heavily on septic tanks, often poorly maintained, contributing to
groundwater contamination.
The Yen Xa Wastewater Treatment Plant, designed to serve the south-western
districts, operates significantly below its intended capacity due to incomplete sewer
networks. Similarly, the Bac Thang Long facility cannot expand service coverage due to
bottlenecks in pipeline development.
Table 3: Thematic Coding Output – State
Category
Reference Count
Treatment Coverage
66
Sewer Network
74
Facility Utilization
58
Septic Dependence
61

Key Issues Identified
Only 28.8% treated wastewater
Gaps in peri-urban areas
Yen Xa below capacity
High use of septic tanks, poor maintenance

4. Impacts (I)
The environmental, health, and socio-economic impacts of inadequate wastewater
management in Hanoi are profound. The NVivo sentiment analysis shows 72% of
stakeholder comments expressed concerns about “high negative impacts”, particularly
environmental pollution and public health risks.
Water quality monitoring reports confirm that biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
levels in the To Lich River regularly exceed national standards by 5 to 10 times. Health
departments report an increase in waterborne diseases in underserved districts. Economic
losses also arise from reduced tourism appeal, higher healthcare costs, and deteriorating
urban quality of life.
Table 4. Impact Coding – Top Concerns
Impact Type Frequency Representative Quotes
Environmental
94
"Rivers toxic, fish dead year-round"
Health
Economic
Social Equity

814

72
65
58

"More cases of diarrhea, skin infections"
"Tourists avoid polluted lakes"
"Poor areas get no service but suffer most"

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5. Responses (R)
Policy responses from both central and municipal governments have been partially
effective but remain insufficient. Hanoi has adopted the PPP Law (2020) and updated the
Environmental Protection Law (2020), with explicit goals outlined in the Wastewater
Master Plan (2030). However, NVivo coding shows that “implementation barriers”
dominate stakeholder feedback on responses.
Specifically, the lack of a standardized PPP contract for wastewater projects, delays
in land acquisition, and insufficient tariff reforms are recurring concerns. While pilot PPP
projects such as Yen Xa have made progress, scalability remains constrained by fragmented
governance and limited risk-sharing mechanisms.
Table 5: Response Node Matrix – Stakeholder Sentiment
Positive
(%)
35

Negative
(%)
50

Neutral
(%)
15

40

45

15

30

60

10

Tariff Reform

20

70

10

Risk-sharing
Mechanism

15

75

10

Response Element
PPP Law (2020)
Environmental Law
(2020)
Wastewater Master
Plan

Key Barriers Identified
Lacks sector-specific details
Poor enforcement
Funding gaps, land use
conflicts
Tariffs too low for cost
recovery
Absent in current PPP
contracts

6. Synthesis of DPSIR Analysis
The DPSIR framework demonstrates a feedback loop where weak policy responses
exacerbate drivers and pressures. For example, failure to adjust wastewater tariffs
constrains financial resources, leading to underinvestment in infrastructure. In turn, this
worsens the state of wastewater services, magnifies environmental impacts, and cycles back
to public dissatisfaction, reducing political support for necessary reforms.

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Figure 1 DPSIR schematic

Policy Analysis: Gaps and Challenges
The DPSIR-based analysis reveals several systemic gaps and persistent challenges in
Hanoi’s wastewater management policy, particularly in relation to the deployment of
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) models. These gaps can be classified into four interlinked
dimensions: legal, financial, institutional, and social-technical.
Legal and regulatory fragmentation is one of the most significant barriers. While the
Vietnamese government has enacted the PPP Law (2020) and updated the Environmental
Protection Law (2020), misalignment persists between these frameworks and other critical
laws, such as the Land Law and Construction Law. For instance, inconsistencies in land
acquisition procedures create significant delays in PPP projects, as wastewater facilities
often require large tracts of urban or peri-urban land that are difficult to secure under
current regulations. Moreover, the lack of a standardized PPP contract specific to the
wastewater sector generates uncertainty for private investors regarding risk allocation,
revenue guarantees, and dispute resolution.
Financial unsustainability further exacerbates the issue. Wastewater tariffs in Hanoi
are currently set at approximately 15% of the clean water tariff—insufficient to recover

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operational costs, let alone capital expenditures or depreciation. The absence of a viability
gap funding (VGF) mechanism forces private operators to shoulder disproportionate
financial risks, reducing the attractiveness of the wastewater sector compared to other
infrastructure investments like energy or transportation.
On the institutional front, governance remains highly fragmented. Responsibility
for wastewater management is dispersed across several agencies, including the Department
of Construction (DOC), the Department of Natural Resources and Environment
(DONRE), and the Department of Finance (DOF). No dedicated PPP coordination unit
exists within Hanoi's municipal government for the wastewater sector, leading to
overlapping mandates, conflicting priorities, and accountability gaps. This fragmentation
slows down project preparation, approval, and implementation phases.
Social and technical challenges further constrain progress. Public awareness of
wastewater issues remains low, contributing to resistance against tariff increases and
reluctance to host wastewater treatment facilities in local communities. Moreover,
technological adoption is limited, especially in decentralized treatment systems that could
serve rapidly urbanizing peri-urban areas. The lack of smart monitoring tools further
hampers system efficiency and transparency.
Compounding these challenges is a weak risk-sharing framework. Current PPP
contracts inadequately address how financial, operational, and environmental risks are
distributed between public and private stakeholders. This deficiency undermines investor
confidence, leading to project delays or outright cancellations.
In summary, Hanoi’s wastewater PPP policy framework suffers from a structural
misalignment between ambition and execution. Addressing these gaps requires a
comprehensive approach that integrates legal reform, financial restructuring, institutional
strengthening, and community engagement with technological modernization.

Recommendations
1. Legal and Regulatory Reform
Legal harmonization is an urgent priority to streamline wastewater PPP
implementation in Hanoi. First, the PPP Law should be amended to include sector-specific
guidelines for environmental infrastructure, particularly wastewater. This includes

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developing standardized contract templates that clearly define risk-sharing mechanisms,
performance benchmarks, tariff adjustment formulas, and dispute resolution procedures.
Second, inconsistencies between the PPP Law, Environmental Protection Law,
Land Law, and Construction Law must be resolved. This can be achieved through interministerial circulars or an omnibus amendment that explicitly addresses the overlaps. For
example, land acquisition procedures should be expedited by introducing eminent domain
provisions for essential environmental infrastructure, subject to fair compensation.
Third, environmental permitting processes should be simplified. Currently, PPP
wastewater projects require multiple rounds of environmental impact assessments (EIAs),
often duplicating requirements across different agencies. Establishing a one-stop permitting
system would significantly reduce administrative burdens.
Finally, legal frameworks must incorporate sustainability and climate resilience
criteria. Contracts should mandate compliance with international environmental standards,
and project approvals should be contingent on climate risk assessments. Such provisions
not only align Hanoi with global sustainability goals but also attract climate-aligned
financing from international investors.
2. Financial Mechanisms
Reforming Hanoi’s wastewater financial model is essential for PPP viability. The
first step is adjusting wastewater tariffs towards full-cost recovery. A phased approach is
recommended: gradually increasing tariffs over five to ten years while providing targeted
subsidies for low-income households to maintain social equity.
Second, the establishment of a Viability Gap Funding (VGF) mechanism is critical.
This fund would bridge the gap between commercially viable and socially necessary
infrastructure, covering up to 40% of capital expenditures for PPP wastewater projects,
similar to successful models in India and Indonesia.
Third, Hanoi should explore innovative financing mechanisms. Issuing municipal
green bonds dedicated to wastewater infrastructure could attract ESG (Environmental,
Social, Governance) investors. Blended finance models, combining public funds,
development finance, and private capital, can also de-risk investments.
Fourth, risk-sharing mechanisms must be formalized. Contracts should include
minimum revenue guarantees, particularly in the early operational years. Additionally,

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inflation-indexed tariff clauses and foreign exchange risk coverage for international
investors can significantly improve bankability.
Finally, incentivizing performance is crucial. PPP contracts should incorporate
output-based payments linked to water quality outcomes, treatment volume, and service
reliability. Such mechanisms align public and private incentives, ensuring that financial
sustainability goes hand in hand with environmental performance.
3. Institutional Strengthening
Institutional reform is as critical as legal and financial adjustments. Establishing a
Dedicated PPP Unit for Water and Wastewater within the Hanoi People’s Committee is a
high priority. This unit would serve as the central coordinator, managing project pipelines,
facilitating inter-agency collaboration, and providing technical support to both public
entities and private investors.
Clear role delineation is necessary. The Department of Construction should focus
on infrastructure standards and technical oversight; the Department of Natural Resources
and Environment should handle environmental compliance; while the Department of
Finance oversees fiscal management and tariff regulation. The PPP Unit would integrate
these functions to ensure coherence.
Capacity building is also essential. Training programs on PPP contract
management, financial modeling, and environmental compliance should be institutionalized
for public officials. Partnerships with international organizations like the World Bank,
ADB, and OECD can support this process.
Additionally, digitalization should be embraced. Implementing a centralized data
management system for wastewater infrastructure—including real-time monitoring of
treatment plants—would improve transparency, operational efficiency, and regulatory
enforcement.
Finally, fostering public-private dialogue is vital. Regular stakeholder forums
involving government agencies, private sector actors, NGOs, and community
representatives can preempt conflicts and align expectations.
4. Community Engagement and Technology Adoption
Public acceptance is a cornerstone of sustainable wastewater management. First,
Hanoi should launch city-wide public awareness campaigns emphasizing the health and

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environmental benefits of proper wastewater treatment. Leveraging social media, schools,
and community centers can foster behavioral change.
Second, participatory governance models should be adopted. Establishing local
advisory committees for major PPP projects—comprising residents, NGOs, and technical
experts—can improve transparency and accountability. These committees can participate in
tariff discussions, site selection, and project monitoring.
On the technological front, Hanoi must diversify beyond centralized treatment.
Deploying decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS), particularly in periurban and industrial zones, can offer cost-effective and scalable solutions. Technologies
like modular membrane bioreactors (MBRs) or compact Johkasou units, proven in Tokyo
and Singapore, are highly applicable.
Smart monitoring technologies should also be adopted. Installing IoT-based
sensors for flow, quality, and operational metrics enables real-time oversight, reducing
downtime and maintenance costs. These data can be integrated into the city’s broader
smart city framework, enhancing governance.
Finally, adopting circular economy principles—such as biogas recovery from sludge
and nutrient recycling—can transform wastewater from a liability into a resource, aligning
with Hanoi’s green growth ambitions.

Conclusion
This study demonstrates that the DPSIR framework offers a robust and
comprehensive tool for evaluating the multifaceted challenges facing wastewater policy in
Hanoi. The analysis highlights that while Hanoi has made considerable strides in
recognizing the importance of wastewater management—evidenced by the adoption of the
PPP Law and updated wastewater master plans—substantial systemic gaps remain.
Legal fragmentation, financial unsustainability, institutional incoherence, and weak
community engagement continue to impede the scalability of PPP models in the
wastewater sector. The comparative analysis with global cities such as Singapore,
Amsterdam, and Shanghai reinforces that successful wastewater PPP deployment requires a
holistic framework combining legal certainty, sustainable financing, strong institutions, and
active public participation.

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The recommendations put forward in this study provide a clear roadmap for
reform. Legal and regulatory harmonization, coupled with innovative financial mechanisms
like VGF and green bonds, can enhance project bankability. Institutional strengthening
through the establishment of a dedicated PPP unit ensures coherence, while community
engagement and technological adoption address social acceptance and operational
efficiency.
As Hanoi continues its trajectory toward becoming a modern, sustainable
metropolis, transforming wastewater management from a persistent problem into a
cornerstone of environmental resilience and public health is both an urgent necessity and
an achievable goal. The lessons drawn from this research not only serve Hanoi but also
contribute to the global discourse on sustainable urban water governance in the Global
South.

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