Indonesian Journal on Geoscience Vol. 8 No. 3 December 2021: 427-441 INDONESIAN JOURNAL ON GEOSCIENCE Geological Agency Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources Journal homepage: h p://ijog.geologi.esdm.go.id ISSN 2355-9314, e-ISSN 2355-9306 Documentation, Analysis and Reconstruction of the Paleo-landuse of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period: A Geomatic Study based on Archaeological Evidence Mohammad Al Farajat1, Saad Twaissi2, Mahmoud B Al Hasanat3, Abdulla Al-Rawabdeh4, Hani Al Falahat5, Emad Hijazeen6, and Ekhlas Al Eide7 Department of Archaeology, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Ma’an, Box 20, Jordan Departement of History and Archaeology, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain United Arab Emirates 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Al Hussien Bin Talal University, Ma’an, Box 20, Jordan 4 Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Box 566, Zip Code 21163, Jordan 5 Department of Antiquities of Jordan 6 Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities Jordan 7 Balqa Applied University - Department of Political Sciences 1 G 2 IJ O Corresponding author: alfarajat@hotmail.com Manuscript received: July, 17, 2020; revised: December, 21, 2020; approved: April, 5, 2021; available online: September, 23, 2021 Abstract - Archaeologists and historians throughout time have relied mainly on textual, architectural, and art-historical analyses to understand the historical context of civilizations. This traditional approach has been challenged, however, by the current new practices in archaeological studies, which tend to rely on more scientific methods (e.g. information systems) to understand the wider context of the socio-cultural aspects of past societies. For example, the Nabataean studies, which for more than seventeen decades after the rediscovery of Petra in 1812, are based on the art historical analysis of the rock-cut facades of the the city of Petra. The wider story of the socio-cultural, political, and economic aspects of the Nabataean culture is still not well understood. Just recently archaeological research was undertaken to improve the understanding of the Nabaatean phenomenon from outside Petra. This paper discusses this new attempt to investigate the spatial organization and land use of Wadi Musa during the Nabataean period based on GIS analysis and new archaeological discoveries. Utilizing GIS in discovering historical phenomena provides a new perspective for analysis, whereby structures are treated not as individual archaeological items but rather as a system. This paper also presents a case study that demonstrates the significance of using GIS for historical research by shedding light on the temporal variation of Wadi Musa settlements with special focus on the paleo-landuse of the Nabatean period. The resulting reconstructed map indicates that Wadi Musa was well planned with special zones for elite residents, industry, rural communities, and agriculture. Social segregation/stratification is also well indicated in the plan of the city. The reconstructed map indicates that the strategy for Nabataean land use for Wadi Musa was to use it as a green zone around the city of Gaia. Keywords: well log, log prediction, regression, artificial intelligence, machine learning © IJOG - 2021 ­ How to cite this article: Al Farajat, M., Twaissi, B.S., Al Hasanat, M.B., Al-Rawabdeh, A., Al Falahat, H., Hijazeen, E., and Al Eide, E., 2021. Documentation, Analysis and Reconstruction of the Paleo-landuse of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period: A Geomatic Study based on Archaeological Evidence. Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, 8 (3), p.427-441. DOI: 10.17014/ijog.8.3.427-441 Introduction Background The Nabatean culture represents an interesting phenomenon in the classical period (fourth century B.C. through second century A.D.) as it originated from a nomadic background. The Nabataeans were able to establish their own autonomus kingdom, which stretched along a wide geographical area extending from Busra in the north (now southern Indexed by: SCOPUS 427 Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 8 No. 3 December 2021: 427-441 ity, natural hazards, biodiversity, natural resources, ownership of lands, etc. Optimized land use can be achieved by the nature of the land use unit. The rapidly developing tools for archaeologists who study ancient land use and settlement patterns are becoming increasingly used in practice with the development of GIS technology and the availability of digital environmental data. GIS is now a proven effective tool that has revolutionized archaeological study techniques and has been used to understand ancient settlement patterns (Topouzi, 2010), ancient landuse (Hill, 2004; Hill et al., 2016), to pinpoint locations of past settlement (Winemiller, 2014), and to understand ancient landscape (Bevan and Conolly, 2004; Lawrence et al., 2012). The study presented in this paper had the following ojectives: (a) understanding the historical context of Wadi Musa using GIS applications, and (b) recognizing the settlement patterns of Wadi Musa throughout time by studying its paleolanduse with special reference to the Nabatean period. IJ O G Syria) to Madain Saleh in the south (in modern Saudi Arabia) with Petra as its capital. The Nabataeans were considered the masters of caravans at that time as they monopolized the trade of the most demanded goods of that time (e.g. spices, frankincense, myrrh, balsam, and other aromatic goods) (Groom, 1981; Johnson, 1987). Petra is one of the world richest and largest archaeological sites. Due to its outstanding universal value, Petra was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986, because it represents a unique artistic achievement for the Nabataeans. Archaeological excavation focusing exclusively on the archaeological sites of Petra proper (i.e. the rock cut city) has been conducted in the area for more than eighty-five years, whereas the peripheral area of the urban city, including Wadi Musa, has been neglected. It is believed that a better understanding of domestic life in Petra and Nabataean social life in general, can be imagined by examining the area with a wider perspective that would include the periphery of Petra. Current archaeological investigations in Wadi Musa, though salvage in nature, indicated that the boundaries of Petra extended well outside the traditional archaeological site of Petra and included Wadi Musa. The historical evidence suggests that Wadi Musa, in contrast to Petra proper, has had a long history of human occupation extending from the Epipaleolithic period (14,000 - 8,500 BC) up to modern times. This paper will illustrate the settlement pattern of Wadi Musa through time with greater focus on the Nabataean period (fourth century B.C.- second century A.D.) in an effort to determine how Wadi Musa was planned during this period and what land use strategy was employed by the Nabateans in this area. The nature of land use is a critical issue nowadays. The severe impacts of poor planning on the environment, natural resources, biodiversity, and the welfare of the country affect the future of nations worldwide due to serious threats to their sustainability and economic well-being. At present, land use planning is implemented based on scientific methods and is governed by several factors: geology, topography, land cover, soil fertil- 428 Studied Area The studied area was the city of Wadi Musa, which covers approximately 9 km2 and is located in the southern part of Jordan, about 240 km south of the capital city of Amman. The area is best described as a wide valley that is part of a large catchment bounded by high mountains in all directions. The topographic elevations of the city range from 400 m to 1,400 m above sea level. Most of the rocks forming the geology of the city are limestone and marl with thin layers of chert and mud. Morphologically, the city is composed of mountainous areas, valleys, flat areas, ridges, and extended wadis that normally flood in the winter (Figure 1). Geological Setting in Wadi Musa The geological succession in the studied area is as follows (from bottom to top): 1) Pre-Cambrian basement of granite rocks; 2) Unconformity-Salib Sandstone (Cambrian): a thin unit resting on the unconformity; 3) Umm Ishrin Arkosic Sandstone 00 254500 00 253500 55 60 00 254000 00 253000 00 00 252500 252000 251500 26 35 00 26 40 26 45 26 50 26 26 G 00 00 26 70 75 26 65 85 26 26 26 80 00 00 Documentation, Analysis and Reconstruction of the Paleo-landuse of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period: A Geomatic Study based on Archaeological Evidence (M. Al Farajat et al.) IJ O Figure 1. Topography and location of Wadi Musa City. (Cambrian): most of the monuments are carved in the middle part of this unit, Liesegang banding is abundant; 4) Disi White Arenite Sandstone (Ordovician): white domes near Wadi Musa and behind the rest house; 5) Unconformity-Kurnub Sandstone (Lower Cretaceous): soft sandstones, occupying the graben (valley) in the centre of Petra, which is also visible behind Wadi Musa; and 6) Limestone (Upper Cretaceous): above Wadi Musa along the mountains east of Petra, the Musa (Moses) spring flows from here. Most of the springs in the area issue from the Upper Cretaceous Formation, composed of carbonate rocks. Some other springs issue from the underlying Lower Cretaceous Sandstone Formation (Barjous, 2003). Methodology The archaeological data used in this research were based on previous archaeological works in the area, mainly the salvage works conducted by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan during the implementation of the sewage and waste water net project (Amr et al., 1997, 1998, 2000; Amr and Al-Momani 1999, 2000, 2001), the intensive survey of the Wadi Musa suroundings conducted by Tholbecq (2001, 2003), and a field survey by the authors conducted in June 2015 to document the ruins and archaeological remains using GPS. The data collected were used to classify the ruins according to their ancient functions, which were reconstructed and re-delineated by entering the data into a GIS environment, relating them to each other, and classifying the data and gathering them into maps that were ultimately used to produce an ancient land use map. The main objective was to definitively determine the land use planning criteria of the Nabataeans followed and compared it to our modern scientific land use and urban planning methods. Results Climate and Biodiversity in Wadi Musa Mediterranean climatic conditions prevail in the studied area with average annual precipitation 429 Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 8 No. 3 December 2021: 427-441 The economic layers include the distance to public services and its networks, the distance to marketing centres, and the distance to the water supply and resources. Public welfare issues are taken into consideration when overlooking lands are chosen for recreation or tourism projects. Security issues often are of importance for some countries. Current Land Use in Wadi Musa The existing land use in Wadi Musa passed through different phases of development; several layers were modeled to elaborate the most land factors that have been taken into consideration through the different authorities that planned the city through the last five decades. Qualitativequantitative modeling conducted using IDRISI GIS and SURFER 8.0 (Figures 2 and 3). Normally, the variables of the same layer are given as rates, while the layers themselves are given weights according to their importance and impact. IJ O G of around 250 mm. The two major wadis passing through Wadi Musa (Wadi El-Sadder and Wadi Ain Musa) are full of grapes, figs, olives, and apricots. The Ain Musa and Ain El-Sadder springs irrigate the fields, which extend along the two wadis. The fertile soil in flat areas permits good productivity for fruits, olives, and vegetables. The city is rich with water springs, and until now most of the population prefers to use them for drinking purposes despite the presence of other water supplies (Oran, 2005). The Petra region is a unique place for plant geographers and is of great interest to botanists for its diversity. Three bio-geographical regions intermesh here: the Mediterranean, the IranoTuranian, and the Sahel-Arabian regions. Furthermore, Petra is characterized by a dramatically changing landscape ranging from 290 m above sea level in the southwest up to 1,700 m above seal level in the north, where the Hisheh oak tree forest is located. The region encompasses three different microclimates, which explain the diversity of the region’s flora. The fauna of Petra is of equally great diversity with 332 species identified within the region, of which the majorities are insects and birds (RSCN, 2013). The Petra region contains about 15 - 17% of all the items on Jordan's unusually rich species list and 39% of the families, indicating a rich biodiversity environment and economic growth to maintain sustainability (UNDP, 2014). Building the land-use unit map depends on many variables in the GIS layers, which normaly consist of two types: environmental layers and economic layers. Environmental layers include land sensitivity layers, which comprise maps of groundwater vulnerability against pollution (e.g. some spatial variables like natural recharge, depth to groundwater, and aquifer types), spatial risk of flood, spatial risk of landslides, maps of agricultural soil, maps of forests and natural green cover, maps of holy and/or archaeological sites, maps of significant views, topographic maps, climatic types, maps of natural resources and biodiversity habitats, topographic slopes, and land aspect models (Hamdan and Al-Rawabdeh, 2020). 430 Occupation History of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period Wadi Musa has received very little archaeological attention, with all the past archaeological work was salvage in nature because of the predominantly modern town and the dramatic growth of the population and modern investments. The most comprehensive archaeological work in the Wadi Musa was conducted by Khairieh Amrin conjunction with a waste water project in the late 1990s, upon which the study presented in this paper is mainly based (Figure 4). The evidence recovered by Amr shed some light on its occupation history. The earliest period of human occupation at Wadi Musa is the Epipaleolithic 14th - 8th millennium B.C., which is represented by lithic assemblages excavated in Wadi Musa (Figure 4 (sites W6 and 15, and Figure 5). A large farming community evolved in the area during the PrePottery Neolithic B (PPNB) period that goes back to the 7th millennium B.C. and is represented by a 7.5 ha settlement that was uncovered in the Basit area in the northwestern corner of the city Documentation, Analysis and Reconstruction of the Paleo-landuse of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period: A Geomatic Study based on Archaeological Evidence (M. Al Farajat et al.) 360 Wadi Musa PAP Boundary 28.002 Ha, 260.0 km 330 2-D topographic slope model PDTRA Boundary 79.642 Ha, 796.4 km2 300 2 270 Baidha Town Boundaries 240 Umm Sayhoun All agricultural suitable soils, 0.8 Ha 76.2 km2 210 180 150 PAP Boundary 28.002 Ha, 260.0 km 120 Wadi Musa PDTRA Boundary 79.642 Ha, 796.4 km2 70 2 Town Boundaries 2-D aspect model Baidha Current closed forest Umm Sayhoun Forest suitable soils 60 Surface watesheds 90 60 30 0 50 40 PAP Boundary 28.002 Ha, 260.0 km 30 Wadi Musa PDTRA Boundary 79.642 Ha, 796.4 km2 20 2 Town Boundaries Baidha Bare rock 10 2-D topographic model Umm Sayhoun 0 PDTRA Boundary 79.642 Ha, 796.4 km 2 PAP Boundary 28.002 Ha, 260.0 km Acacua rocky sundanian Evergreen dark forest Juniperous forest Mediteranian non forest vegetation Steppe vegetation Town boundaries 2 Wadi Musa Cumulative flood Baidha PDTRA Boundary 79.642 Ha, 796.4 km2 PAP Boundary 28.002 Ha, 260.0 km 2 G Umm Sayhoun 1530 1500 1470 1440 1410 1380 1350 1320 1290 1260 1230 1200 1170 1140 1110 1080 1050 1020 990 960 930 900 Wadi Musa Town boundaries Faults Baidha 3-D topographic model Umm Sayhoun Topographic shapes Figure 2. Different models of Wadi Musa City via IDRISI GIS and SURFER. (Coordinates of the four right side maps see Figure 1). 359000 354000 355000 356000 357000 358000 N 0 1000 2000 m 351000 352000 353000 354000 355000 356000 357000 358000 359000 357000 358000 356000 357000 355000 356000 354000 355000 353000 354000 352000 IJ O 351000 Wadi Musa_zoning_101213.shp Agricultural Archeologic area Cemetary Commercial Commercial with regulation use Commercial with special use Community building Gas station Green area Hotels and commercial use Hotels only zone Mixed use Mosque Park Protected zone Residential and tourist condo use Residential special use Residential Zone A Residential Zone B Residential Zone C Residential Zone C with special use Residential Zone D Restricted zone need permission Tourist hotels Tourist investment Upgrading tourism Wadi Musa boundary 358000 Figure 3. Current land-use plan in Wadi Musa. (Figure 4, site W8, and Figure 5). The village included complex structures composed of small rooms with red painted plaster floors and subfloor channels as well as walls built of stone and mortar standing to a height of more than 2 m, which may indicate two-storey houses and suggest a more complex Neolithic Wadi Musa society (Amr and Al-Momani 2001, Rolefson 2002). There was a little evidence of late pottery in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age periods; and the sixth through fourth millennia B.C. are represented only by a small assemblage of 431 353500 354000 354500 G 355000 355500 356000 356500 357000 357500 358000 358500 Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 8 No. 3 December 2021: 427-441 351500 352000 352500 353000 353500 354000 354500 355000 355000 356000 356500 355000 355500 356000 356500 357000 357500 IJ O Figure 4. Map of recorded sites in Wadi Musa (based on Amr et al. 1998, Amr and Al-Momani 2000, and Amr and AlMomani 2001). 0 352500 1000 353000 353500 2000 m 354000 354500 355000 Epipalaeclithic sites Neolithic sites Middle bronze age sites Iron age sites 355500 356000 Figure 5. Map of ancient period sites discovered at Wadi Musa. lithic artifacts (Rolefson, 2002). However, the area appears to have been more densely re-inhabited during the Middle Bronze Age II, 1990 - 1550 B.C. (Figure 5). The evidence of this period was 432 discovered in the centre of the modern city in the form of strongly built walls and two lime-kilns that indicated a complex residential pattern (Amr and Al-Momani, 2001). Documentation, Analysis and Reconstruction of the Paleo-landuse of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period: A Geomatic Study based on Archaeological Evidence (M. Al Farajat et al.) the most intensive period among all those represented. Depending on the salvage work done, the limit of the Nabataean City of Gaia was also defined to correspond roughly with the modern mid-town. The archaeological and epigraphical evidence from the area shows that there was a temple at the centre of the city (Figure 4, site W18; Figure 5), dated based on pottery to the Nabataean period with an earlier phase probable (the Hellenistic period) (Ibrahim and Kurdi 1978; Zayadine 1981). In addition to the temple, several residential areas were also defined in al-Brayka, the Suq, al-Maslakh, al-Zuhur, and al-Falahat quarters of the modern town. All these residential quarters were shown to be Nabataean monumental and luxurious structures that were described as villas/palaces. More than twenty villas were already identified in this part of the modern city and supposedly formed the Nabataean City of Gaia (Figure 6). These villas were characterized by elaborate building techniques, plastered walls, flag-stones pavements, and evidence of frescos and wall painting. Mosaics and opus sectile pavements were also recovered in some of these supposed villas. Moreover, one of these villas was shown to be furnished with a private bathhouse (Amr et al., 1997; Amr and Al-Momani 2000; 356000 356500 357000 357500 IJ O G After the middle Bronze Age, the area most likely was abandoned or a process of nomadization for the previous inhabitants may have occurred for an unknown reason. Only during the Iron Age II period was the area resettled again as revealed by the Edomite settlement at Tawilan (Figure 4, site W10), which spanned only two centuries (8th through 7th BC) (Bennett and Beinkowskie, 1995). Other evidence of this period was uncovered in three other spots in Wadi Musa (Amr and al-Momani 2001; Figure 4, sites W8, 10, 13, and 30); and Figure 5). There is no evidence of human occupation in the area during the period between the sixth century B.C. and the Nabataean period; and during this time, it is likely that the area was dominated by nomadic people active in long-distance trade who were known later to be the Nabataeans (Twaissi and Nassarat, 2012). The importance of Wadi Musa during the Nabataean period was only recognized through a few inscriptions that mentioned the Nabataean name of this area as “al-Ji/Gaia.” Although the archaeological knowledge of Wadi Musa was limited and was mainly obtained from past salvage works, the evidence of the Nabataean period settlement clearly indicated that it was 355500 Water structures Agricultural activity Pollery workshop Rural community 355000 Elite residential area Cemetry Caravan Station 0 352500 1000 353000 353500 Paved road 2000 m 354000 354500 Clay quary 355000 355500 356000 Figure 6. Sites of Nabataean period in Wadi Musa. 433 Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 8 No. 3 December 2021: 427-441 G Figure 7. Underground Nabataean water tunnel in Wadi Musa. Wadi Musa (Figure 4, site W9). The excavations revealed a Nabataean village with several houses that all indicated a good economic status for the inhabitants, but not like the inhabitants of Gaia. The floors of these houses were paved with flagstone pavement. Moreover, one of the houses was furnished with a kitchen and clay oven (tabun) (Amr et al., 2000). This village was supplied with water by a large reservoir with a total storage capacity of about 530 m3 that included a complex channels system similar to that at al-Humayma (Figure 8). Moreover, an olive press that was dated to the early first century A.D. was also uncovered in the village (Amr et al., 2000), attesting to the presence of intensive orchard and agricultural activities in the area and the permanent sedentary lifestyle of its inhabitants. The most intensive Nabataean pottery workshops known to us so far were discovered at the northwestern edge of Wadi Musa at al-Zurraba area (Figure 4, site W4) where about twelve IJ O Amr and Al-Momani 2001; Twaissi, 2001). The evidence also shows that the water supply of the city was supported by a complex hydraulic system (Figure 7) that was connected to these villas; and many cisterns and water basins were also recorded in different parts of the city (Amr and Al-Momnai, 2000). Further indication of the importance of Wadi Musa and its layout is that caravan routes were structured to avoid Wadi Musa. This suggestion is based on the fact that at the southeastern entrance of Wadi Musa, there were two large animal enclosures that were associated with large quadrangular structures, which were interpreted as indicating the farthest point that caravans could reach and to avoid entering Wadi Musa directly (Tholbecq, 2001). A number of smaller residential areas were recorded on the immediate periphery of Gaia. This periphery also was served by several water reservoirs and cisterns (Amr et al., 1998; Figure 4, sites W2, 3, and 9) with similar engineering skills displayed as in other Nabataean sites. In addition, there is evidence that bridges were also erected across streams and wadis. The best-preserved bridge is located at Wadi Khalil (Figure 4, site W15); Amr et al., 1998; Falahat et al., 2001). The only properly excavated Nabataean residential centre in the periphery of Gaia was Khirbit al-Nawafleh at the northeastern edge of 434 Figure 8. Outlet of a Nabataean water reservoir at Khirbet an-Nawaflih. Documentation, Analysis and Reconstruction of the Paleo-landuse of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period: A Geomatic Study based on Archaeological Evidence (M. Al Farajat et al.) G pottery kilns have been discovered since 1979 (Zayadine, 1982; Amr and Al-Momani, 1999; Amr and Al-Momani 2001; and Amr and Zayadine, 2002). However, light industrial activity also was located within the city walls but at the edge of the city, such as the olive pressing centre in the Badd area of Gaia (Figure 6) where several oil pressing stones were discovered (Amr and Al-Momani, 2001). Other discoveries in Wadi Musa included cemeteries or family tombs (Figure 4, sites W25, 27, and 33); also, evidence of burials and cemeteries was found outside the boundary of Gaia (Amr and Al-Momani, 2001; Figure 4, sites W 25, 27, and 33). Based on the evidence found in Wadi Musa and the survey of the ash-Sharah area, it was determined that the Nabataean city of Gaia was protected by two zones of fortifications. In her archaeological works, which accompanied the infrastructures works of the Wadi Musa water system, Khairieh Amr noted the existence of a huge wall surrounding Gaia, parts of which were uncovered in different areas of the modern town (Amr and Al-Momani, 2001) (Figure 9). The second zone of fortification encompassing Petra and Wadi Musa was recorded by Tholbecq (2013). His survey for ash-Sharah represented this second zone as a series of watch towers and small forts running along the ridge of the Wadi Musa basin that were connected with long walls (Tholbecq, 2001). The evidence found of later periods (Late Roman-Early Islamic) show continuity in human settlement, but on a smaller scale than the Nabataean period (Figure 4, sites W6, 9, 18, 19, 30, and 32; Figure10). However, the evidence also suggests that Wadi Musa was more densely re-inhabited from the Ayyubid/Mamluk period on, which was well attested by several settlements and cemeteries of these periods as well as several water mills dating back to the Early Ottoman period (Amr and Al-Momani, 2001), indicating that the communities were more rural and agricultural-based (Figure 4, sites W6, 8 - 14, 17 - 19, 21, 22, and 27 - 31) and Figures 10 - 13). IJ O Figure 9. Modern wall on top of ancient fortified wall in Wadi Musa. On the basis of provided evidences, Wadi Musa has had long and continual human occupation since the 14th millennium B.C. The Nabataean period, however, was the golden age of the city. During this period, the city had a well planned modern mid-town that included an elite quarter occupied by the Nabataean upper class, which was protected by a fortified wall. Social segregation/ stratification during the Nabataean period was indicated by the luxurious houses located behind the city walls. Peripheral rural communities as well as heavy industries, such as pottery production, and family tombs were located outside the boundaries of the city (Figure 6). The evidence available suggests that the Petra proper and Wadi Musa formed one unit (i.e. the greater capital of the Nabataean Kingdom), and the combined GIS maps (Figures 14 - 20) show that it was a well planned city. In addition, the land use strategy in Wadi Musa was to maintain a green zone around the city of Gaia. As a testament to the Nabataean planning scheme, the modern midtown of Wadi Musa has remained a favourable residential area to this day. 435 0 352500 1000 353000 Roman-Byzantine sites Roman period sites Byzantine period sites Byzantine-Early Islamic sites G 355000 355500 356000 356500 357000 357500 Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 8 No. 3 December 2021: 427-441 353500 2000 m 354000 354500 355000 355500 356000 IJ O Figure10. Sites of Roman-Early Islamic sites in Wadi Musa. Figure 12. Iron Age-Modern field terraces in Wadi Musa. • • Figure 11. Late Mamluk-Ottoman water mill in Wadi Musa. The logical land-use suitability indexes the authorities used was based on the following assumptions: • Agricultural soils were kept as much as possible for agricultural activities. 436 • • • Buffers of 100 m were kept from each of the major wadis to avoid risk of flooding. Areas with topographic slopes exceeding 20% were notused for any construction purposes, but instead were gardens and/ or free spaces. Terraces that could be irrigated from water springs were kept for agricultural activities. Central flat areas were allocated for public service units and marketing centres. Relatively flat overlooking areas were allocated for residential uses. 355000 355500 356000 356500 357000 357500 Documentation, Analysis and Reconstruction of the Paleo-landuse of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period: A Geomatic Study based on Archaeological Evidence (M. Al Farajat et al.) 1000 352500 2000 m Fatimid and Ottoman period sites Ayyubid/Mamluk period sites Ayyubid/Mamluk-Ottoman period sites Ottoman period sites G 0 353000 353500 354000 354500 355000 355500 356000 356000 IJ O 357000 Figure 13. Sites of Latter Islamic periods in Wadi Musa. 355000 N 0 1000 352000 2000 m 353000 Free zones Residential zones Royal properity zone Villas (rich people residents) 354000 354500 356000 354000 354500 356000 356000 357000 Figure 14. Residential remain zones. 355000 N 0 1000 2000 m Water structures 352000 353000 Figure 15. Water harvesting remain zones. 437 Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 8 No. 3 December 2021: 427-441 355000 356000 357000 N Flood protection zones 0 352000 353000 354000 354500 500 1000 m 356000 G Figure 16. Flood-protection-remain zones. 355000 IJ O 356000 357000 N Agricultureal zones Range lands 1 500 352000 1000 m 353000 354000 354500 356000 354000 354500 356000 Figure 17. Agricultural remain and terrace zones. 355000 356000 357000 N Flood protection zones Flood protection zones 1 352000 500 1000 m 353000 Figure 18. Military control zones. • 438 Water harvesting provisions and flood protection structures were provided along wadis with flood potentials that drain relatively big catchment areas. Documentation, Analysis and Reconstruction of the Paleo-landuse of Wadi Musa with Special Reference to the Nabataean Period: A Geomatic Study based on Archaeological Evidence (M. Al Farajat et al.) 356000 357000 N Temple zones Free zones 355000 Natural curation zones Residential zones Commercial zones Light hand crafts zones Tombs 1 500 352000 1000 m 353000 354000 354500 356000 G Figure 19. Public service zones. 357000 N Temple zones Free zones Natural curation site 356000 Water structures Military control zones Range lands Flood protection zones Residential zones Military zones 355000 IJ O Agricultural zones 1 352000 500 Commercial zones Royal properity zone Villas (rich people resident) 1000 m 353000 354000 354500 Light hand crafts zones 356000 Figure 20. Result of the overlapped layers. • Hidden areas in the surrounding areas were allocated for heavy industries. Comparing the reconstructed land use map of the Nabataeans with the land use map of the historical periods (Figure 14) and the current existing land use in the city (Figure 3) and analyzing them visually, it is obvious that all the Nabataean maps utilized early the same criteria used in modern land use planning. Conclusions In conclusion, this paper presents a clear evidence that scientific methods were followed in planning the different landuse units during the different occupation periods of the city of Wadi Musa. The historical struggle between the Nabataeans and the Romans also was reflected in the landuse planning of those periods. Since Petra is considered as one of the 10th most wonderful archaeological places in the world, the landuse of Petra and Wadi Musa indicated that the planning method of Wadi Musa through time was developed in accordance with the envisioned development and extension of the city. The rapidly increasing population and the development of tourist facilities in present days have played a vital role in landuse changes. Until now, historians have mainly relied on textual, architectural, and art-historical analyses of monumental structures to understand their historical context. 439 Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 8 No. 3 December 2021: 427-441 This paper found clear evidence that GIS can lend an important new dimension to the analysis of historical phenomena, because structures in GIS are treated not as individual archaeological items but rather as a system. The case study in this paper also demonstrated the significant value of GIS in historical research. 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