e-ISSN: 2807-2820 Natural Sciences Engineering Technology Journal [NASET Journa.
https://nasetjournal.
Nature-Based Solutions for Climate-Resilient Stormwater Management in Jakarta:
A Comparative Modeling of Green Roof and Permeable Pavement Performance Anies Fatmawati1.
Grace Olivia Silalahi2*.
Fitriyanti Fitriyanti2.
Mary-Jane Wood4 Department of Environmental Engineering.
Liatris Institute.
Jakarta.
Indonesia Department of Management.
CMHC Research Center.
Palembang.
Indonesia Department of Regional Economics.
Enigma Institute.
Palembang.
Indonesia Division of Research and Human Resource Development.
Namiland Institute.
Avarua.
Cook Island
ARTIC LE
INFO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Urban Resilience Green Infrastructure Climate Change Adaptation SWMM Permeable Pavement *Corresp ondi ng author:
Grace Olivia Silalahi E-mail address:
olivia@enigma.
All authors have reviewed and approved th e Anal version of the manuscript.
https://doi.
org/10.
37275/nasetjournal.
Rapid urbanization and projected climate change impacts pose severe challenges to stormwater management in tropical megacities like Jakarta.
Indonesia.
Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) are critical for enhancing urban resilience, yet quantitative, context-specific performance data under future climate scenarios are scarce.
This study provides a comprehensive, model based comparative analysis of green roofs and permeable pavements for managing urban stormwater in Jakarta.
An archetypal 1-hectare, mediumdensity urban catchment was developed in the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM).
The model was rigorously calibrated and validated against published empirical data from analogous tropical regions (Nash -Sutcliffe Efficiency > 0.
We evaluated the hydrological .
unoff volume, peak flo.
and water quality (TSS.
TN) performance of green roofs and permeable pavements under partial and full implementation scenarios .
%, 50%, 75%, 100%) for current and two future climate scenarios (RCP4.
RCP8.
5 for Permeable pavements consistently demonstrated hydrological control, achieving up to 82% runoff volume reduction and 88% peak flow attenuation under full implementation for a 2-year baseline storm.
Green roofs achieved 48% and 55%, respectively.
Under an extreme 25-year storm in the RCP8.
5 scenario, performance diminished but remained substantial, with permeable pavements .
% implementatio.
reducing runoff by 68%.
Green roofs provided more consistent pollutant removal, particularly for total nitrogen .
52% removal across scenario.
, due to biological processes.
In conclusion, both NBS technologies significantly enhance stormwater management capacity, though a clear trade -off exists between the superior hydrological control of permeable pavements and the balanced performance and co-benefits of green roofs.
These findings provide a quantitative basis for integrating NBS into urban planning policy in Indonesia to foster climate-adaptive and resilient cities.
Introduction The fundamentally altered the urban hydrological cycle.
This infiltration and evapotranspiration, leading to a impacts of global climate change present a formidable dramatic increase in surface runoff volume and challenge to urban water security worldwide.
This The consequences are severe: more frequent and devastating flash floods, degraded water quality in megacities of Southeast Asia, such as Jakarta, receiving water bodies due to the washoff of pollutants.
Indonesia.
The relentless expansion of impervious and increased strain on aging, often inadequate, surfacesAiroads, rooftops, conventional "grey" drainage infrastructure 4.
The particularly acute and parking lotsAihas conventional approach, which prioritizes the rapid under future climate change scenarios, which project conveyance of stormwater away from urban centers via a significant intensification of extreme rainfall events in the region, is paramount for sustainable urban recognized as unsustainable and ill-equipped to A direct, quantitative comparison of these handle the projected increases in rainfall intensity and two cornerstone NBS technologies is crucial for frequency associated with climate change.
This has planners in Jakarta to make informed decisions about catalyzed a global paradigm shift towards more resource allocation, considering the different urban sustainable and resilient approaches, prominently surfaces they treat .
ooftops vs.
ground surface.
and featuring Nature-Based Solutions (NBS).
NBS are their distinct suites of co-benefits.
interventions inspired and supported by nature.
This study aims to address these critical gaps model-based providing simultaneous environmental, social, and The novelty of this research is threefold:
it provides a direct, quantitative comparison of the stormwater management.
NBS, also known as Green hydrological and water quality performance of green Infrastructure or Low Impact Development (LID), roofs and permeable pavements tailored to a tropical encompasses a suite of technologies that aim to mimic megacity context.
it systematically evaluates the pre-development hydrology by capturing, treating, performance of these systems under a range of infiltrating, and storing rainwater at its source.
co-benefits.
Among the most widely adopted and studied NBS and .
most critically, it assesses the technologies are green .
roofs and permeable resilience and operational effectiveness of these NBS Green roofs are multi-layered systems under projected, high-intensity future climate change engineered to support vegetation on rooftops, which The aim of this study is to quantify and intercept rainfall, promote evapotranspiration, and compare the stormwater management performance of delay runoff, while also offering significant co-benefits like mitigating the urban heat island effect, improving Indonesian urban setting under current and future building energy efficiency, and enhancing urban climate conditions.
Permeable scientific basis for their strategic integration into designed porous surfaces that allow stormwater to pass through into an underlying aggregate storage thereby providing development policies to enhance climate layer, where it can be detained, infiltrated into the native subsoil, or slowly released into the drainage network, thereby drastically reducing surface runoff and filtering pollutants.
While the efficacy of green roofs and permeable Methods To conduct a controlled and replicable comparative analysis, this study employed a virtual experimental approach using a hypothetical, archetypal urban pavements is well-documented in temperate climates, medium-density a critical knowledge gap persists regarding their residential areas in Jakarta.
The 1-hectare .
x100 performance in tropical regions like Indonesia.
The .
catchment was designed based on land-use distinct climatic conditionsAicharacterized by high- typologies common to the city, consisting of 50% intensity, short-duration convective thunderstorms building rooftops, 30% roads and parking lots, and and pronounced wet and dry seasonsAipose unique 20% managed green spaces .
arks and lawn.
This challenges and performance considerations for these scale was selected as it represents a fundamental unit Furthermore, understanding the long-term for micro-scale hydrological analysis, allowing for resilience and effectiveness of these technologies detailed process-based modeling of individual NBS technologies aggregation at larger sub-catchment scales.
The catchment was assigned a uniform slope of 1%, a typical value for the flat coastal plain of Jakarta.
The performance of the two NBS technologies was .
Permeable Pavement (PP) Scenarios: The evaluated across a range of implementation coverages specified percentage of the total road and parking lot to assess the marginal benefits of increased adoption.
% of the catchmen.
was replaced with "business-as-usual" example, in the PP-75 scenario, 75% of the paved area .
5% of the total catchment are.
was converted.
Four intervention scenarios were then The design specifications for the green roof and developed for each NBS type: 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% implementation.
Green Roof (GR) Scenarios:
established engineering design guidelines and typical The specified percentage of the total rooftop area .
% material properties, as detailed in Table 1.
of the catchmen.
was converted to extensive green interlocking concrete For The study evaluated NBS performance under three For example, in the GR-25 scenario, 25% of the The rooftop area .
5% of the total catchment are.
was developed using a 20-year historical rainfall dataset .
from a meteorological station in Jakarta.
"delta change method" was employed for downscaling.
Two future scenarios for the year 2050 were developed This method is a widely accepted approach for climate based on the Representative Concentration Pathways impact assessments that adjusts the (RCP.
from the IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report:
baseline series by applying the projected monthly RCP4.
n intermediate emissions scenari.
and mean changes from the GCMs, thereby preserving the RCP8.
high emissions, "worst-case" scenari.
observed local rainfall patterns .
iurnal cycles, storm Future generated by profile.
while incorporating the long-term climatic downscaling projections from an ensemble of three From these continuous time series, synthetic General Circulation Models (GCM.
known for their design storm events with return periods of 2, 5, 10, robust performance in the Southeast Asia region:
and 25 years were statistically derived for each HadGEM2-ES.
MPI-ESM-MR, and CNRM-CM5.
The scenario to drive the hydrological simulations.
rainfall time The U.
Environmental Protection Agency's Storm used for all simulations.
SWMM is a dynamic rainfall- Water Management Model (SWMM) version 5.
1 was runoff model that simulates hydrological and water quality processes in urban areas.
The archetypal Pollutant accumulation on surfaces during dry periods catchment was modeled with distinct sub-catchments was modeled using a power function, and washoff for rooftops, pavements, and green spaces.
The NBS technologies were modeled using SWMM's specialized exponential function.
Low Impact Development (LID) controls module, which simulates the physical processes of engineered systems.
Key model A rigorous calibration and validation procedure was performed to ensure the model represents the physical processes within the NBS parameters are systems under tropical conditions.
As field data from detailed in Table 2.
the specific site was unavailable, the LID modules were Water quality simulations focused on two primary calibrated and validated against published, high- pollutants indicative of urban runoff contamination:
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Nitrogen (TN).
studies on green roofs and permeable pavements in These were selected as they represent particulate and Malaysia, a region with a highly analogous tropical nutrient pollution, respectively, and are common climate and rainfall patterns to Jakarta.
The calibration involved a The adjustment of key LID parameters .
oil conductivity, simultaneously optimize three standard goodness-of- surface roughness, void rati.
to minimize the fit metrics: Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE).
Root Mean discrepancy between simulated and observed runoff Square Error (RMSE), and Percent Bias (PBIAS).
The hydrographs for a series of storm events reported in model was then validated using a separate set of storm events with the calibrated parameters held constant.
The results of this process, shown in Table 3, indicate The trend for peak flow attenuation closely a "very good" model fit according to established mirrored that of volume reduction, highlighting the criteria, providing high confidence in the model's effectiveness of both NBS in mitigating flash flood risk predictive capability.
(Figure .
Permeable pavements excelled at delaying The effectiveness of each NBS scenario was and attenuating peak flows due to their significant evaluated based on three primary metrics, calculated subsurface storage capacity.
For the 2-year baseline relative to the baseline scenario for each design storm:
storm, 100% permeable pavement implementation .
Runoff Volume Reduction (%): The percentage attenuated the peak flow by 88%, while 100% green decrease in the total volume of runoff exiting the roof implementation achieved a 55% reduction.
The .
Peak Flow Attenuation (%): The impact of climate change was again evident.
For the percentage decrease in the maximum instantaneous 25-year storm under the RCP8.
5 scenario, the peak runoff rate.
Pollutant Load Reduction (%): The flow attenuation for fully implemented permeable percentage decrease in the total mass of TSS and TN pavements was 75%, while for green roofs it was 38%.
exported from the catchment.
These results underscore that even under significantly Results and discussion distinct, stormwater management capabilities of green
NBS
implementation can provide a critical buffer against The simulation results reveal the significant, yet permeable pavements the sharp, destructive runoff peaks characteristic of urban flash flooding.
Both NBS technologies were effective at improving implementation levels and climate scenarios.
Both NBS technologies demonstrated a substantial capacity characteristics differed (Figures 3 and .
Green roofs to reduce runoff volume, with performance directly demonstrated slightly better and more consistent Permeable pavements were consistently superior in particularly Total Nitrogen (TN).
Across nearly all this regard.
As shown in Figure 1, under the baseline scenarios and storm events, full implementation of climate scenario for a typical 2-year storm, full .
%) green roofs removed approximately 52% of the TN load.
implementation of permeable pavements achieved an This is attributed to biological processes such as plant 82% reduction in runoff volume, compared to 48% for uptake and denitrification within the growing medium.
green roofs.
The benefit of partial implementation was Permeable pavements removed 45% of TN in the least intense storm scenario, with efficiency dropping to pavements and green roofs reduced runoff volume by 35% in the most intense scenario, likely due to 28% and 15%, respectively.
reduced contact time with filter media at high flow As rainfall intensity and volume increased for more extreme storm events and under future climate For Total Suspended Solids (TSS), green roofs scenarios, the absolute performance of both systems achieved high removal rates of approximately 75% diminished, but the relative superiority of permeable across all scenarios, primarily through filtration and pavements was maintained.
For the most extreme event modeledAia 25-year storm under the high- performed well, removing 65% of TSS under the 2-year emissions RCP8.
5 scenarioAifull implementation of baseline storm, though this efficiency decreased to permeable pavements still achieved a robust 68% 58% for the 25-year RCP8.
5 storm, suggesting that runoff volume reduction.
In the same event, full very high flows can compromise the filtration capacity implementation of of the system.
green roofs Permeable Figure 1.
Runoff volume reduction for Green Roof (GR) and Permeable Pavement (PP) scenarios at different implementation coverages .
% to 100%).
Results are shown as box-and-whisker plots representing performance across 2, 5, 10, and 25-year return period storms for .
Baseline climate, .
RCP4.
5 scenario, and .
RCP8.
The boxes represent the interquartile range (IQR), the line represents the median, and whiskers extend to 5x IQR.
The results of this modeling study provide change has propelled Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) compelling, quantitative evidence for the significant from the periphery to the core of modern stormwater potential of green roofs and permeable pavements to management strategies.
The provided analysis, which contrasts the performance of permeable pavements management systems in Jakarta.
The findings align and green roofs, encapsulates the central challenge with the broader body of international research and opportunity facing urban planners and engineers:
confirming the efficacy of NBS but provide context- not simply whether to adopt NBS, but how to strategically select and deploy them to maximize This study's systematic evaluation across benefits based on specific local priorities.
The clear implementation levels and future climate scenarios superiority of one system for hydrological control offers several key insights into the mechanisms, trade- versus the nuanced biogeochemical advantages of offs, and practical implications of adopting these another underscores a critical trade-off.
A deeper The imperative to create resilient, sustainable urban environments in the face of climate implications of performance under climatic stress, and underlying mechanisms, the the pragmatic realities of implementation and long- studies into effective, real-world policy and practice.
term maintenance is essential for translating modeling Figure 2.
Peak flow attenuation for Green Roof (GR) and Permeable Pavement (PP) scenarios at different implementation coverages .
% to 100%).
Results are shown as box-and-whisker plots representing performance across 2, 5, 10, and 25-year return period storms for .
Baseline climate, .
RCP4.
5 scenario, and .
RCP8.
The fundamental difference in the hydrological capture it.
Their structure is a multi-layered system performance of permeable pavements and green roofs where each component plays a critical role.
The is a direct consequence of their engineered design and, surface layer, which can specifically, the volume of their respective water interlocking concrete pavers, porous asphalt, or storage capacities.
This difference is not trivial.
it is the pervious concrete, is designed with interconnected primary determinant of their efficacy in reducing void spaces that allow for rapid percolation of runoff volume and attenuating peak flows, particularly rainwater away from the surface.
11,12
consist of during the high-intensity rainfall events that are of Beneath this lies a bedding course of fine, open- greatest concern for urban flood management.
The graded aggregate that stabilizes the pavers, followed by remarkable hydrological performance of permeable the system's primary storage components: a base and pavements stems from their function as engineered often a sub-base course composed of larger, open- subsurface reservoirs.
Unlike conventional impervious graded crushed stone.
It is within the substantial void pavements that are designed to shed water as rapidly space of these aggregate layersAithe empty volume as possible, permeable systems are designed to between the individual stonesAithat the system's immense storage capacity resides.
For the design depth y 0.
40 porosit.
When combined with the specified in the study, with a combined base and sub- storage in the bedding and surface layers, the total base depth of 600 mm and a porosity of 40%, these capacity reaches approximately 0.
26 mA/mA.
This is layers alone provide a storage capacity of 0.
24 cubic equivalent to holding 260 mm .
ver 10 inche.
of meters for every square meter of pavement .
rainfall in a subsurface stone matrix.
Figure 3.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) load reduction for Green Roof (GR) and Permeable Pavement (PP) scenarios at 100% implementation coverage.
The bars represent the median performance across all return period storms for each climate scenario.
The hydrological process is elegant in its simplicity.
water can then follow two paths: infiltration into the As rainfall begins, it passes almost instantaneously underlying native subsoil, which recharges local through the surface, preventing the formation of groundwater, or slow, controlled release into the surface ponding and runoff.
The water then fills the conventional drainage network through a perforated aggregate reservoir from the bottom up.
This captured Both pathways achieve the primary goals of management: runoff reduction through infiltration and evapotranspiration principle of saturation-excess runoff.
When a storm begins, the NBS systems absorb from the aggregate, and peak flow attenuation by water, effectively removing it from detaining the storm's peak volume and releasing it generating process.
over a much longer period.
capacityAithe voids in the pavement's aggregate or the However.
In contrast, green roofs function less like a reservoir pores in the green roof's soilAiis completely filled, the and more like a living sponge.
Their capacity for water system is saturated.
Any subsequent rainfall can no management is primarily dictated by the properties of longer be absorbed and will behave as if it has landed the engineered growing medium.
A typical extensive on an impervious surface, generating runoff.
The green roof system, as modeled in the study, consists of extreme rainfall events projected under the RCP8.
a layer of drought-tolerant vegetation, a lightweight scenario serve as a critical stress test.
The increased growing medium .
ypically 100-200 mm dee.
, a filter rainfall intensity means that the saturation point is fabric to prevent soil loss, and a drainage layer to reached much more quickly.
For a small, 2-year storm, convey excess water.
a permeable pavement might capture nearly the entire The primary mechanism for water retention is event within its storage layers.
For a massive, 25-year absorption within the pore spaces of the growing storm under a future climate scenario, the same medium until it reaches its field capacityAithe system might become saturated within the first maximum amount of water it can hold against the 18,19 force of gravity.
For the study's design of a 150 mm This the percentage- medium with 45% porosity, the maximum storage based performance appears to diminish.
Even though capacity is approximately 0.
07 mA/mA .
15 m depth y the absolute volume of water captured by the NBS 45 porosit.
, equivalent to holding 70 mm of rainfall.
during the large storm is still substantial .
t still fills Additional hydrological benefits are derived from its entire 0.
26 mA/mA capacit.
, this volume represents rainfall interception by the a smaller fraction of the much larger total storm crucially, from evapotranspirationAithe process by However, this performance is still critically which water is returned to the atmosphere by By capturing the "first flush" of the storm, evaporation from the soil and transpiration from the NBS delays the onset of runoff, desynchronizes the 16,17 peak flow from the sub-catchment with peaks from plant canopy This nearly four-fold difference in instantaneous other areas, and significantly reduces the total load on storage capacity .
26 mA/mA for permeable pavements the downstream grey infrastructure, providing a 07 mA/mA for green roof.
is the definitive reason substantial, albeit not total, level of protection.
for the pavement's superior performance in flood While permeable pavements are the clear victor in During an intense tropical downpour, a hydrological control, the assessment of water quality permeable pavement system can continue to absorb performance reveals a more complex and nuanced rainfall long after a green roof's growing medium has The superior and more stable Total Nitrogen become fully saturated, providing a much higher level (TN) removal efficiency of green roofs highlights their of protection against high-volume, high-intensity storm events.
The concept of saturation is central to active biogeochemical understanding the performance limits of any NBS.
is denitrification, a microbially-mediated process that Both permeable pavements and green roofs exhibit converts harmful dissolved nitrates (), a major diminishing returns in performance as storm intensity and volume increase, a phenomenon that will be nitrogen gas (), permanently removing it from the water exacerbated by climate change.
This is governed by the This process requires a specific set of filters, but The nutrient pollution, into harmless conditions: the presence of nitrates, an organic carbon environments for denitrifying bacteria, which are source for the microbes, and, most importantly, anoxic naturally present in the soil, to thrive.
Coupled with .
ow-oxyge.
After a rainfall event, as the the direct uptake of nitrogen by the plants for growth, lower layers of the green roof's growing medium these biological pathways make green roofs highly effective at nutrient pollution control.
saturated, oxygen micro-sites.
These Figure 4.
Total Nitrogen (TN) load reduction for Green Roof (GR) and Permeable Pavement (PP) scenarios at 100% implementation coverage.
The bars represent the median performance across all return period storms for each climate scenario.
Permeable significant denitrification are largely absent.
This primarily as physical filters.
Their aggregate layers are functional difference presents a critical strategic trade- highly effective at straining and trapping particulate- off for urban planners.
In a flood-prone catchment bound pollutants like Total Suspended Solids (TSS).
where the primary objective is mitigating property However, they are far less effective at removing damage and protecting lives, the superior hydrological dissolved pollutants like nitrate.
The environment control of permeable pavements makes them the more within the aggregate base is generally well-aerated logical choice.
However, in a catchment that drains .
and lacks the rich organic matter found in a into a nutrient-sensitive water body, such as a lake or green roof's soil, meaning the conditions necessary for estuary suffering from eutrophication, the robust nitrogen removal provided by green roofs may be of hydrological and water quality performance.
These higher value.
This decision is further complicated by differing long-term maintenance liabilities, alongside the wider array of ecological co-benefits associated the initial capital investment, must be holistically with green roofs, such as creating habitats for evaluated to ensure the sustained, long-term success biodiversity, mitigating the urban heat island effect of any NBS program.
improving building energy efficiency.
17,19
In summary, the decision between deploying green roofs or permeable pavements is not a simple choice of Translating modeling results into tangible urban a "better" technology.
It is a strategic decision that improvements requires a clear understanding of must be deeply informed by local context, specific practical implementation strategies and long-term management priorities, and a clear-eyed assessment lifecycle considerations.
The study's inclusion of partial implementation scenarios is therefore critically Permeable pavements offer an unparalleled solution It is unrealistic to expect a city to retrofit for direct flood control, while green roofs provide a 100% of its surfaces.
The results, which show a multi-faceted approach consistently positive .
hough non-linea.
relationship management and delivers a wealth of additional between implementation coverage and performance, ecological benefits.
The future of resilient urban design provide the evidence base for pragmatic policy.
This lies not in choosing one over the other, but in data allows for the analysis of marginal benefits, intelligently integrating both, creating a mosaic of empowering decision-makers to conduct cost-benefit green infrastructure tailored to the unique challenges For instance, they can determine the level of and aspirations of the city.
flood risk reduction achieved by converting 25% of long-term While this study employed a rigorous modeling roadways to permeable pavement and weigh it against the associated costs.
This can inform targeted policies.
The such as municipal codes that require all new catchment means the results represent an idealized commercial developments The actual performance of NBS in Jakarta percentage of their stormwater on-site, providing will vary with site-specific factors such as local soil developers with the flexibility to choose the most cost- conditions, topography, and the specific configuration effective NBS to meet the performance target.
of urban infrastructure.
The pollutant buildup and Finally, the long-term performance engineered systems is entirely contingent on a single, archetypal washoff coefficients were based on international literature and may not perfectly reflect local conditions in Jakarta.
Finally, all climate projections carry of lifecycle engineering.
Permeable pavements are inherent uncertainty, and the GCMs used represent highly susceptible to clogging, where fine sediments one possible future.
However, by using a multi-model and organic debris accumulate in the surface pores, ensemble and a high-emissions scenario (RCP8.
sealing the pavement and drastically reducing its this study has sought to capture a robust range of infiltration capacity.
To prevent this, a robust and potential future conditions for resilience planning.
maintenance, a budgeted maintenance plan involving regular vacuum sweeping is non-negotiable.
Green roofs, while less Conclusion to catastrophic hydraulic failure, require This study provides a comprehensive, model-based consistent horticultural care, including irrigation assessment of the performance of green roofs and permeable pavements as key Nature-Based Solutions Neglecting this care can lead to vegetation for enhancing urban stormwater resilience in Jakarta, loss, soil erosion, and a corresponding decline in both Indonesia.
The results demonstrate unequivocally that both technologies can significantly reduce runoff volumes, attenuate flood peaks, and improve water supplementary flood mitigation for low-lying quality, even under challenging future climate change coastal cities under climate change.
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