JIPK.
Volume 17 No 3 October 2025 Sinta 1 (Decree No: 158/E/KPT/2.
e-ISSN:2528-0759.
p-ISSN:2085-5842 Available online at https://e-journal.
id/JIPK JIPK
(JURNAL ILMIAH PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN)
Scientific Journal of Fisheries and Marine Research Article Identification of Scleractinian (Har.
Coral Disease in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta Faridatul Khusna1 .
Rikoh Manogar Siringoringo2 Riyanti1* , and Ni Wayan Purnama Sari2,3 .
Muhammad Abrar2 Giyanto2 Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science.
Jenderal Soedirman University.
Purwokerto.
Indonesia 2Research Center for Oceanography - National Research and Innovation Agency.
Indonesia
3PhD Candidate Ae Newcastle University Abstract
ARTICLE INFO
Received: May 09, 2025 Accepted: July 18, 2025 Published: July 28, 2025 Available online: Sept 27, 2025 *) Corresponding author:
E-mail: riyanti1907@unsoed.
Keywords:
Coral Disease Prevalence Coral Cover Kepulauan Seribu Kepulauan Seribu is designated as a marine conservation area in Kepulauan Seribu National Park and is one of high tourism development areas on the north side of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia.
Anthropogenic sources from these nearby areas has reduced the health condition of coral reefs and increased the prevalence of coral diseases in the study area.
This study aimed to determine the genus of coral infected by disease, the type of disease, and the relationship between the prevalence of disease and live cover in Kepulauan Seribu.
Data was collected using the survey method.
Coral cover is assessed using Underwater Photo Transect (UPT) and disease is assessed using Belt Transect methods.
The result showed that 14 genera of coral species were infected and dominated by Porites.
Montipora, and Acropora.
Furthermore, there were 5 types of diseases, dominated by White Syndrome (WS).
Atramentous Necrosis (AtN) and Ulcerative White Spots (S).
The correlation analysis results showed a very low relationship between disease prevalence and live coral cover .
= This research can be used as input or reference for more sustainable coral reef management, by improving an integrated coastal education system for the younger generation and developing more sustainable tourism activities in the future in Kepulauan Seribu.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-SA license .
ttps://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.
Cite this as: Khusna.
Siringoringo.
Abrar.
Giyanto.
Riyanti.
Sari.
Identification of Scleractinian (Har.
Coral Disease in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta.
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan, 17.
:627-642.
http://doi.
org/10.
20473/jipk.
Copyright A2025 Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Universitas Airlangga Khusna et al.
/ JIPK, 17.
:627-642
Introduction Coral reefs are unique ecosystems in tropical waters with high levels of diversity (Hasim, 2021.
Siringoringo et al.
, 2.
However, these species are highly susceptible to disturbances caused by changes in the aquatic environment, leading to a significant decline in health conditions (Page et al.
, 2.
The 31 study areas explored by the Research Center for Oceanography of the National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia reported moderate conditions in 2021 with a value of 33.
99% (Giyanto et al.
Further observation showed that the conditions declined due to natural changes, human activities, and the local environment (Giyanto et al.
, 2.
Anthropogenic factors and climate change also increased the frequency of coral stress, which could elevate disease-causing pathogens invading the ecosystems (Maynard et al.
, 2.
Coral disease is a form of disturbance to health causing the physiological decline of coral tissue including interactions between host, pathogen, and environment (Raymundo et al.
, 2008.
Work et al.
, 2008.
Huang et al.
, 2021.
Moriarty et al.
, 2.
This disease is divided into two factors based on cause, which are infection .
and non-infection .
biotic factor.
(Vega Thurber et al.
, 2.
Biotic factors can come from microbial pathogen infections (Soffer et al.
, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, or protists that spread, thereby harming the host (Raymundo et al.
A distinct pathogen causes each type of coral disease (Montilla et al.
, 2.
The spread of pathogens in coral poses a risk of death and rapid tissue loss, threatening the survival of polyps (Moriarty et , 2.
Abiotic factors come from nutrient imbalances (Nelson and Altieri, 2019.
Sabdono et al.
, 2.
an increase in water temperature (Johan et al.
, 2.
and sedimentation (Harvell et al.
, 2.
The occurrence of coral disease and bleaching is closely related to the decline in water quality, both on a local and global scale, because of their vulnerability to changes in environmental factors (Moriarty et al.
, 2.
In Indonesia, coral reefs are widely distributed in Kepulauan Seribu in Java Sea, north of Jakarta Bay, where the islandAos land area covers 897.
71 hectares and its surrounding waters of 6,997.
50 square kilometers .
(Estradivari et al.
, 2.
This area has coral reef conservation area managed by the Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park (Noviana et al.
, 2.
However, the species are exposed to the effects of development and the activities of JakartaAos residents, the capital city, which declined water quality (Baum et al.
Arifin, 2016.
Fahlevy et al.
, 2.
A significant factor contributing to the decline of coral reef ecosys- tems is anthropogenic activities (Thirukanthan et al.
Fauzanabri et al.
, 2.
Anthropogenic sources in Jakarta include high nutrients from effluents due to increased human activities (Sabdono et al.
, 2.
, ever-expanding capital city development (Johan et al.
, overfishing (Aeby et al.
, 2.
, and sedimentation caused by reclamation (Baum et al.
, 2.
Additionally, tourism activities can significantly impact the overall condition of coral cover (Fahlevy et al.
, 2.
Currently, studies on coral disease are being conducted worldwide (Morais et al.
, 2.
Morais et al.
conducted a study in Caribbean Sea for 34% and in Indo-Pacific for 28.
7% of all coral disease studies.
According to Lamb and Willis .
, disease phenomena in AustraliaAos Great Barrier Reef had an average prevalence of 3.
27%, while 11.
was reported in Koh Tao Island.
Thailand (Lamb et , 2.
Another study in Red Sea of Saudi Arabia stated that the relationship between coral disease and cover did not have a significant value (R = -0.
= 0.
(Aeby et al.
, 2.
In line with the development of further studies in Indonesia by Johan et al.
stated that the dominant types of disease found in Kepulauan Seribu were Black Band Disease (BBD) and White Syndrome (WS).
The latest report conducted by Rachmayanti et al.
stated that the prevalence of WS was higher at 4.
05% than BBD at 1.
on Pari Island.
Kepulauan Seribu.
BBD is a coral disease with a dark brown to black band separating living tissue from infected tissue (Huang et al.
, 2.
WS is characterized by the presence of whitening tissue barriers on the surface, followed by tissue loss (Greene et , 2.
Based on the report by Johan et al.
the calculation of the prevalence of BBD obtained results ranging from 0.
31% to 31.
64%, indicating that 177 colonies predominantly infected the genus Montipora in Kepulauan Seribu.
The study carried out by Arifin .
in the small islands of Jakarta Bay also showed that types of coral disease varied significantly, and the relationship between live cover and disease prevalence was substantial.
However, coral disease has not been extensively investigated in Kepulauan Seribu.
Furthermore, the primary factors contributing to the deterioration of coral reef ecosystem every year in this area are anthropogenic activities such as massive development in Jakarta, domestic waste, and tourism activities in Kepulauan Seribu.
Therefore, this study aimed to determine the genus of coral infected by disease, the type of disease, and the relationship between the prevalence of disease and live cover in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta.
Materials and Methods JIPK: Scientific Journal of Fisheries and Marine JIPK Vol 17 No 3.
October 2025 | Identification of Scleractinian (Har.
Coral Disease in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta 1 Material 1 The equipments The equipment used in this live coral cover research includes SCUBA (Standard Pack SCUBA Se.
Global Positioning System (Garmin GPS MAP 78.
, and underwater camera (CANON Power shot G16 12 MP resolutio.
, transect frame .
x44 c.
and 100 m measuring tape.
While the coral disease collection uses a belt transect measuring 2 x 50 m .
, underwater writing tools .
nderwater board, waterproof paper and penci.
and identification book to help identify the species.
2 The materials The materials used were documentation of data collection, such as 50 digital photographs of coral reef transects including images of healthy and diseased colonies.
3 Ethical approval This study does not require ethical approval because it does not use experimental animals.
2 Method 1 Study area This study was conducted in Kepulauan Seribu from November 2 to 12, 2021.
Reef structure was arranged in a unique direction, extending from coastal area to the deeper waters in a patchy or fringing configuration (Noviana et al.
, 2.
Kepulauan Seribu are part of Kepulauan Seribu National Park and comprise a conservation or core, sustainable use, community access or utilization, and additional areas (Table As shown in Figure 1, study areas are spread from north to south, covering Kepulauan Seribu National Park.
These areas were determined based on coral reef health monitoring guidelines by COREMAP-CTI of Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) using a purposive sampling method in line with the study objectives .
he presence of coral reefs and specific population.
, safety factors, and accessibility when collecting data (Giyanto et al.
, 2014.
Hazrul et al.
, 2.
2 Data collection The method used to collect coral cover data was Underwater Photo Transect (UPT) (Giyanto et , 2.
Generally.
UPT is defined as a method that uses digital camera technology and computer software technology development.
Coral reefs can be visually observed through digital photographs to obtain data on live cover and other benthic features.
Collecting live coral cover data began with the installation of piles and buoys to mark the data collection points at 14 research locations.
A roll meter was stretched 50 m long with a depth of approximately 4-8 m parallel to the shoreline.
Underwater photography using frames was carried out at a distance of 60 cm vertically from the 1st meter transect line to the 50th meter with a 1 m interval between photos.
For each photo, the 1st meter frame was on the left side of the transect line, followed by the 2nd meter frame on the right side of the transect So that the odd-numbered frames were on the left side of the transect line, and the even-numbered frames were on the right side of the transect line (Figure .
Subsequently, photographs obtained from UPT method are processed using CPCe (Coral Point Count with Excel extension.
software to obtain quantitative data such as the cover of each biota and substrate (%) (Giyanto et al.
, 2.
The method used in collecting coral disease data is Belt Transect (English et al.
, 1997.
Raymundo et al.
, 2.
Belt Transect is a method applied to group coral reefs in a transect area, such as a belt, measuring 2 x 50 m .
mA), using a PVC pipe stick tool with a length of 1 m to form a square.
Collecting coral disease data begin with a line transect .
oll mete.
drawn parallel to the shoreline at a depth of 4-8 m with a transect length of 50 m.
The transect belt size is 2 x 50 m in one repetition.
The belt uses PVC pipe with an observation width of 1 m to the left and 1 m to the right of the transect line.
Observations start from 0-50 m to record the type and number of diseased and healthy coral colonies.
Coral colonies affected by disease or other colony health problems are documented using an underwater camera for further identification.
Coral damage and coral benthic forms can be observed to determine the health condition of the coral colony (Figure .
The data were obtained to calculate the presence of coral disease and other disturbances (Raymundo et al.
, 2.
At each transect, other benthic species, the number of coral reefs with disease, the number of healthy species, and predators were recorded.
Subsequently, colonies with disease or other health problems were documented using an underwater camera.
Water quality data was also assessed to provide comprehensive information about water conditions.
Identification Coral identification to the genus level was conducted by examining morphology using the online reference website Corals of the World .
ttps://w.
org/page/home/).
In comparison, disease identification was carried out by recording the type of disease, as observed from the morphological Copyright A2025 Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Universitas Airlangga Khusna et al.
/ JIPK, 17.
:627-642
characteristics of infected colonies.
Furthermore, the condition of infected colonies was determined using the reference book AuCoral Disease Handbook: Guidelines for Assessment.
Monitoring, and ManagementAy (Raymundo et al.
, 2.
, and Underwater Cards for Assessing Coral Health on Indo-Pacific Reefs (Beeden et al.
, 2.
According to Beeden et al.
, coral infected with disease can be identified and grouped based on signs of tissue loss, such as the formation of specific wounds, changes in color, abnormal growth, and other indicators.
3 Analysis Data 1 Percentage of coral cover Live coral cover was obtained based on UPT documentation analyzed through CPCe to achieve a percentage value of category calculated using the formula by Giyanto et al.
Cover (%) = Np/TNp x100.
Where:
= Number of category points TNp = Number of random point The value of live coral cover was used to determine species condition by observing the category of live coral cover on Coral Reef Health Index in Indonesian waters as grouped by the Oceanographic Research Center of Indonesian Institute of Sciences (Oceanographic Research Center-LIPI) (Giyanto et , 2.
(Table .
2 Coral disease prevalence Disease prevalence can be defined as the proportion of infected colonies to the total population, expressed as a percentage according to Raymundo et .
Prevalence (%) = Nc/TNc x100.
Where:
= Number of infection colonies TNc = Total number of colonies 3 Analysis of the relationship of coral disease prevalence and coral cover An analysis was conducted to determine the relationship of coral disease prevalence on live cover using correlation coefficient in Microsoft Excel To determine the relationship between the percentage of live coral cover and the prevalence of coral disease in the Kepulauan Seribu, the correlation coefficient value obtained from the calculation results using correlation analysis was then determined using criteria (Table .
Results and Discussion 1 Result 1 Coral genus infected by disease Hard coral (Scleractini.
infected with disease in Kepulauan Seribu are varied, totaling 15 genera (Table .
As shown in Figure 4, species infected with disease were dominated by the genera Porites and Montipora, followed by Acropora.
This was in line with the study by Cleary et al.
Khuzma et .
, where the dominant types of coral in Kepulauan Seribu were Acropora.
Porites, and Montipora.
2 Types of coral disease Coral disease prevalence depends on the number of healthy and diseased colonies in an area (Abrar and Bachtiar, 2.
The coral disease found in this study has the following characteristics:
Black Band Disease (BBD) BBD was only found in two study areas and defined as disease attacking coral surface with a black band separating healthy tissue from infected tissue (Figure 5.
caused by bacteria (Huang et al.
, 2.
The prevalence of this disease in Kepulauan Seribu 27% (Figure .
and mainly found at KSBC06 by infected Montipora (Table 4 and .
White Syndrome (WS) WS was found in 14 study areas (Table .
, as indicated by a whitening tissue barrier on the surface alongside tissue loss due to changes in environmental conditions (Figure 5.
(Greene et al.
, 2.
The prevalence of this disease in Kepulauan Seribu was 9.
(Figure .
and primarily found at KSBC08 (Table .
, infecting Porites.
Montipora, and Acropora (Table .
According to Beeden et al.
WS is caused by pathogens or environmental variations, leading to a color change from white to brown due to tissue loss in coral.
Atramentous Necrosis (AtN) AtN was found in 9 study areas (Table .
, characterized by an irregular pattern with visible skeletons.
The eroded tissue area then shows a grayish-black spot (Figure 5.
, caused by pathogen infection covering healthy tissue (Miller et al.
, 2015.
Raymundo et al.
, 2.
The prevalence of AtN coral disease in Kepulauan Seribu was 1.
23% (Figure .
, which was primarily found at KSBC10 (West Pamegaran Islan.
(Table .
, infecting Montipora (Table .
JIPK: Scientific Journal of Fisheries and Marine JIPK Vol 17 No 3.
October 2025 | Identification of Scleractinian (Har.
Coral Disease in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta Figure 1.
Map of the research stations in Kepulauan Seribu.
There were 14 research stations starting from KSBC01 in the north until KSBC14 in the south.
Figure 2.
Illustration of data collection using UPT.
This figure top right corner was taken from Giyanto et al.
Copyright A2025 Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Universitas Airlangga Khusna et al.
/ JIPK, 17.
:627-642
Table 1.
Coordinates of 14 island areas and management zones in Kepulauan Seribu.
Research station numbers for each island in this study are also listed No.
Area
Station
Zone
Longitude Latitude West Peteloran Island
KSBC01
Conservation 106A32Ao47.
76AyE 5A27Ao47.
52AyS
East Penjaliran Island
KSBC02
Conservation 106A33Ao6.
840AyE 5A27Ao46.
80AyS
Sebaru Besar Island
KSBC03
Community Access 106A32Ao31.
20AyE 5A30Ao21.
96AyS
Melinjo Island
KSBC04
Community Access 106A32Ao34.
08AyE 5A34Ao11.
28AyS
Genteng Besar Island
KSBC05
Community Access 106A33Ao2.
160AyE 5A36Ao49.
32AyS
Bira Besar Island
KSBC06
Community Access 106A34Ao40.
44AyE 5A36Ao54.
36AyS
Kayuangin Genteng Island
KSBC07
Community Access 106A33Ao47.
52AyE 5A37Ao8.
400AyS
Belanda Island
KSBC08
Conservation 106A36Ao19.
08AyE 5A36Ao11.
88AyS
East Pamegaran Island
KSBC09
Community Access 106A36Ao15.
48AyE 5A38Ao9.
240AyS
South Pamegaran Island
KSBC10
Community Access 106A35Ao27.
24AyE 5A38Ao20.
04AyS
Karya Island
KSBC11
Other 106A36Ao12.
60AyE 5A43Ao55.
20AyS
Pramuka Island
KSBC12
Other 106A36Ao41.
04AyE 5A45Ao6.
120AyS
Payung Island
KSBC13
Other 106A33Ao34.
56AyE 5A49Ao3.
720AyS
Pari Island
KSBC14
Other 106A36Ao45.
72AyE 5A51Ao4.
680AyS Table 2.
Coral reef condition grouping based on percentage cover using the Coral Reef Health Index in Indonesian waters as grouped by the Oceanographic Research Center of Indonesian Institute of Sciences (Oceanographic Research Center-LIPI) Criteria Live coral cover < 19% 19% O Live coral cover O 35% Live coral cover > 35% Table 3.
Relationship criteria based on correlation coefficient value Scale of correlation Value 0 < r O 0.
Very low correlation 2 O r O 0.
Low correlation 4 O r O 0.
Moderate correlation Moderate 6 O r O 0.
High correlation High 8 O r O 1.
Very high correlation Category Low JIPK: Scientific Journal of Fisheries and Marine JIPK Vol 17 No 3.
October 2025 | Identification of Scleractinian (Har.
Coral Disease in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta Table 4.
Coral genus and its respective diseases in Kepulauan Seribu Genus Disease Coral BBD WS AtN UWS Table 5.
Presence of coral disease at each research
Stations BBD
AtN
UWS
KSBC01
Acropora
KSBC02
Astreopora
KSBC03
Diploastrea
KSBC04
Echinopora
KSBC05
Favites KSBC06
Galaxea
KSBC07
Isopora
KSBC08
Leptoseris KSBC09
Montipora
KSBC10
Pavona
KSBC11
Platygyra
KSBC12
Pocillopora
KSBC13
Porites KSBC14 Seriatopora Total Colonies Turbinaria Where = = found.
- = not found.
BBD = Black Band Disease.
WS = White Syndrome.
AtN = Atramentous Necrosis.
UWS = Ulcerative White Spots.
GA = Growth Anomalies.
Ulcerative White Spots (UWS) UWS was found in 7 study areas (Table .
and was identified as coral disease characterized by white patches on coral tissue due to tissue loss (Figure 5.
(Hasma et al.
, 2.
The prevalence of UWS disease in Kepulauan Seribu was 0.
91% (Figure .
The disease was mainly found at KSBC02 (West Penjaliran Islan.
(Table .
and dominantly infected the Porites.
Growth Anomalies (GA) GA was only found in 2 study areas (Table Caldwell et al.
stated that GA was a chronic disease, characterized by coral skeletons protruding like tumors with the potential to reduce survival rate (Figure 5.
The prevalence of GA in Kepulauan Seribu was 0.
38% (Figure .
and primarily found at KSBC09 (Table .
in infected Acropora and Porites (Table .
3 Coral disease prevalence and live coral cover in the Kepulauan Seribu This study was conducted in 14 areas to determine the relationship between coral disease prevalence Copyright A2025 Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Universitas Airlangga Khusna et al.
/ JIPK, 17.
:627-642
Figure 3.
Illustration of data collection using Belt Transect.
This figure right corner was taken from English et al .
Figure 4.
Disease-infected Scleractinian .
corals by genus in Kepulauan Seribu.
Table 6.
Physics-chemical water parameters of Kepulauan Seribu Research Station PS.
PS.
PS.
PS.
Control Point Lancang Island Pari Island Pramuka Island Temperature .
C) Salinity (A) DO .
g/L) Parameters PS.
Optimum Range* PS.
PS.
PS.
Semak Daun Island Harapan Island Tidung Island Dolphin Island 7 Ae 8.
Where = *= Water quality standard by Indonesian Government Number 22 of 2021 (Ministry of Environment and Forestr.
DO = Dissolved oxygen JIPK: Scientific Journal of Fisheries and Marine JIPK Vol 17 No 3.
October 2025 | Identification of Scleractinian (Har.
Coral Disease in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta Figure 5.
Type of coral disease found in Kepulauan Seribu during this study: (A) Black Band Disease.
(B)
White Syndrome.
(C) Atramentous necrosis.
(D) Ulcerative White Spots.
(E) Growth Anomalies.
Copyright A2025 Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Universitas Airlangga Khusna et al.
/ JIPK, 17.
:627-642
Figure 6.
Values of live coral cover and coral disease prevalence at 14 stations.
Figure 7.
Prevalence values for each type of hard coral (Scleractini.
disease Black Band Disease (BBD).
White Syndrome (WS).
Atramentous necrosis (AtN).
Ulcerative White Spots (UWS), and Growth Anomalies (GA).
and live cover (Figure .
The results showed that live coral cover in Kepulauan Seribu ranged from the low to high category, with values of 9.
67%-64.
33% and an average of 32.
The highest percentage was recorded at KSBC14 at 64.
33%, and the lowest of 9.
was at KSBC03.
Furthermore, the prevalence of coral disease ranged from 2.
08% to 15.
79%, with an average The highest prevalence of 15.
79% was observed at KSBC11 and the lowest of 2.
08% was found at station KSBC13.
The results showed that KSBC03 had higher prevalence values than their corresponding The hard coral cover in the study area was in a low category (<19%), characterized by a mix of sand and coral fragments overgrown with macroalgae.
4 Water quality Natural factors resulting from environmental changes can be observed in the supporting data.
Water chemistry parameters, which serve as supporting data for the data collection in Kepulauan Seribu, are pre- JIPK: Scientific Journal of Fisheries and Marine JIPK Vol 17 No 3.
October 2025 | Identification of Scleractinian (Har.
Coral Disease in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta sented in Table 5.
Table 5 shows that the temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels at the study areas are optimal for coral growth and development.
However, the salinity is below the optimum range, so it can reduce the condition of coral reefs .
ow-moderat.
, this is thought to be caused by the overflow of the estuary of the Jakarta mainland river.
Kepulauan Seribu are the final destination of 13 river estuaries originating from Jakarta Bay (Estradivari et al.
, 2.
According to Zurba .
, one of the limiting factors for coral to grow is low salinity.
The effect of salinity on coral varies from one area to another, depending on the intensity of runoff and water conditions (Gassen et al.
Analysis correlation Based on the values of coral disease prevalence and live cover in the study areas, a correlation coefficient analysis was obtained.
The correlation analysis showed r = -0.
10 indicating a negative correlation between the variables in the analysis.
The results showed that the correlation coefficient had a value of r = 0.
suggesting a very low relationship between coral disease and live cover in Kepulauan Seribu.
2 Discussion 1 Disease-infected coral genus The results of the study showed that BBD was often found in Montipora, this was in accordance with the statement from Johan et al.
that BBD was a widely found disease infecting Montipora.
WS was often found in Acropora.
Porites and Montipora.
This was in accordance with the statement from Zakaria et .
, where the disease mainly infected Acropora.
Pavona.
Porites, and Montipora.
AtN infected Montipora, this was in accordance with the statement from Raymundo et al.
, where the disease was most prevalent in Indo-Pacific, particularly in Montipora.
UWS was often found in Porites, this was in accordance with the statement by Raymundo et al.
, who observed that UWS was characterized by white wound spots of less than 1 cm, primarily found in Porites.
Montipora, and Echinopora.
GA infected Acropora and Porites, this was in line with the study by Aeby et al.
, where the disease commonly infected Acropora and Porites.
Based on the results (Table .
, the genus Montipora is the type of coral that is most often infected with tissue loss diseases such as BBD.
WS.
Atramentous Necrosis (AtN), and Ulcerative White Spots (UWS).
The genus dominates the waters by growing rapidly and close together between each colony, and this allow the transmission of pathogenic infections such as bacteria (Greene et al.
, 2.
The genus Montipora is recognized as one of the genera susceptible to infection by diseases (Delpopi et al.
, 2.
Furthermore, the morphology of small and smooth polyps can facilitate infection by pathogens (Shore-Maggio et al.
, 2.
Additionally, immunity declines with age, which allows infection by other organisms, bacteria, and environmental disturbances .
an Oppen and Blackall, 2.
Abrar et al.
also stated that various types of coral diseases infected Montipora and Porites.
Each colony morphology has differences in the process of spreading wounds and the recovery process (Caldwell et al.
, 2.
Among other genera.
Montipora inhabits areas close to each colony, characterized by a smooth and foliose branching growth form with a faster growth rate (Zurba, 2.
, showing the potential risk of transmitting disease infections such as tissue loss (Greene et al.
, 2.
Coral diseases primarily infect Montipora and Porites, as these genera are the most abundant in the waters (Abrar and Bachtiar, 2012.
Caldwell et al.
, 2.
On average, the biological factors of these two genera, lead to large colony sizes and shapes compared to others, causing high vulnerability to disturbances or diseases (Greene et al.
, 2020.
Caldwell et al.
, 2.
This vulnerability is also attributed to the decline in coral immunity that occurs due to age, typically after 35 years old (Caldwell et al.
, 2.
2 Prevalence of coral disease This study showed that five coral diseases infect hard coral in Kepulauan Seribu (Figure .
The highest prevalence was observed for WS at 9.
followed by AtN, 1.
23%, respectively.
Most WS diseases infecting coral are presumably caused by the depletion of water quality such as decreasing salinity (Table .
, due to massive construction impacts in Jakarta and its surroundings.
High nutrient effluents from anthropogenic activities, including rising temperatures also increase the risk of transmitting and developing bacteria.
Thermal stress and resultant bleaching have previously been identified as a driver of coral disease, including high-mortality outbreaks (Greene et , 2.
The diversity of coral species and growth forms in these areas also affects the distribution of specific pathogens (Caldwell et al.
, 2.
Coral species infected with WS in Kepulauan Seribu are predominantly Porites.
Montipora, and Acropora, which are most vulnerable to heat elevation.
Greene et al.
stated that WS prevalence increased with a rise Copyright A2025 Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Universitas Airlangga Khusna et al.
/ JIPK, 17.
:627-642
in nutrient and water temperature stress.
This result was confirmed by Johan et al.
, where diseases occur due to the combination and interaction between the host, specific disease-causing agent factors .
athogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasite.
, and stresses from adverse environmental conditions.
These areas were located in the community access zone of Kepulauan Seribu National Park, with tourism activities such as lodging and snorkeling or diving spots.
Tourism activities can impact coral reef ecosystems and contribute to the high prevalence of coral disease.
Sabdono et al.
stated that tourism activities in marine national parks had the potential to change environmental conditions, thereby enlarging the pathogenAos infections.
According to Lamb et al.
, tourism could increase coral disease prevalence and live cover conditions through the construction of facilities, which elevate water nutrient composition levels, sediment buildup, and erosion due to the area of ship channels.
The results show that disease prevalence in Kepulauan Seribu is lower than in other areas in Indonesia.
The disease prevalence of previous studies in Jakarta Bay reached 37.
9% for SD (Arifin, 2.
Kepulauan Seribu was 31.
64% for BBD (Johan et al.
, and Jemeluk-Penuktukan.
Bali, was 25.
2% for PR (Mellani et al.
, 2.
In Kepulauan Seribu, the prevalence of coral disease was presumed to have declined due to the low anthropogenic activity during the 2019-2020 pandemic (Ihsan et al.
, 2.
3 Relationship of coral disease prevalence and live coral cover According to the analisys, only 10% of coral diseases are related to the condition of coral cover percentage, while other factors relation 90% due to variables not tested, such as competition for food and space .
mong fish, macroalgae, or other benthic biot.
and water quality degradation from anthropogenic activities, including development, tourism, or Similarly.
Johan et al.
stated that coral conditions and low cover occurred due to natural selection, disturbing factors, and other anthropogenic The coefficient showed a negative correlation, characterized by a descending trend.
This suggested that higher prevalence of coral disease led to lower live coral cover.
According to Lamb et al.
, there was no significant relationship between coral cover and disease prevalence.
Aeby et al.
also reported a negative correlation between each factor.
This differed from Arifin .
, where a close relationship with a positive correlation was observed between coral dis- ease prevalence and live cover .
lose to .
, causing a significant influence on the degradation of coral reef Caldwell et al.
also stated that the presence of disease prevalence had a positive correlation with live coral cover but not with a high risk of The differences in the results were due to several factors, including variations in the coral genus found in each area, the prevalence of specific coral disease, and differences in the study area.
Both natural factors and human activities can cause the decline of coral reefs (Huang et al.
, 2.
Anthropogenic activities, such as massive sedimentation and the exploitation of marine resources using toxic materials and explosives, can lead to the deterioration of coral reefs.
Furthermore, mining and marine transportation activities lead to environmental damage (Estradivari et al.
, 2009.
Hasim, 2.
The low level of education and economic development in Kepulauan Seribu affects the understanding of coastal This poses a challenge for the government to provide an integrated education system about coastal knowledge to the younger generation and establish more sustainable tourism activities in the future.
Suci et al.
suggested to the local government to utilize the resources available in Kepulauan Seribu as the foundation for the economy and community welfare.
Conclusion In conclusion, coral disease was found in 15 coral genera, with Porites.
Montipora, and Acropora being the most affected.
A total of 5 types of diseases were identified with WS being the most prevalent.
weak correlation was found between the prevalence of coral disease and live cover.
This suggested that the prevalence of coral disease had only a slight impact on cover conditions in Kepulauan Seribu.
Acknowledgment The authors are grateful to the Research Center for Oceanographics of the National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia (PRO BRIN RI) for providing data on coral reef ecosystems in Kepulauan Seribu under the Reef Health and Monitoring Program (COREMAP-CTI).
Furthermore, the authors are grateful to Jakarta Environmental Agency (DLH DKI Jakart.
for providing water quality data and individuals who helped in writing this study.
AuthorsAo Contributions All authors have contributed to the final manuscript.
Each authorAos contribution is as follows: Fari- JIPK: Scientific Journal of Fisheries and Marine JIPK Vol 17 No 3.
October 2025 | Identification of Scleractinian (Har.
Coral Disease in Kepulauan Seribu.
Jakarta datul Khusna.
processed and analyzed the data, designed the figures, and drafted the manuscript.
Rikoh Manogar Siringoringo.
data collection and activity coordinator of the Reef Health Monitoring COREMAP-CTI program.
Muhammad Abrar.
data collection.
Giyanto.
developing the UPT and CPCe methodologies, as well as assisting in the review and revision of the article.
Riyanti.
text editor, devised the main conceptual ideas and critically revised the article.
Wayan Purnama Sari.
data collection, text editor, devised the main conceptual ideas, and critically revised the article.
All authors discussed the results and contributed to the preparation of the final manuscript.
All authors discussed the results and contributed to the preparation of the final manuscript.
Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests.
Declaration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) The authors affirm that no artificial intelligence (AI) tools, services, or technologies were used in the creation, editing, or refinement of this manuscript.
All content presented is the result of the independent intellectual efforts of the author.
, ensuring originality and integrity.
Funding Information This study was partially supported by the Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program of the Coral Triangle Initiative (COREMAP-CTI), with grant number P127813, funded by the World Bank.
References